# Computed Tomography (CT) Scan



## جوهرة المحيط (4 يوليو 2009)

Computed tomography (CT) SCAN
السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته 
الحمد لله رب العالمين والصلاة والسلام على سيدنا رسول الله ...أما بعد...
اردت ان اقدم لكم نموذج من جهاز المسح الطبقي في موضوع يتناول شرح الجهاز حيث قمت بعمل الموضوع وتعديله ......
وقمت بتقديم الموضوع باللغة الأنكليزية لانه يعتبر اسهل للمهندسين حسب الدراسة ؟؟؟؟؟
مع بعض الشروحات العبية للمبتدئين ...​





Computed tomography (CT) is a medical imaging method employing tomography. Digital geometry processing is used to generate a three-dimensional image of the inside of an object from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken around a single axis of rotation. The word "tomography" is derived from the Greek tomos (slice) and graphein (to write). Computed tomography was originally known as the "EMI scan" as it was developed at a research branch of EMI, a company best known today for its music and recording business. It was later known as computed axial tomography (CAT or CT scan) and body section röntgenography.
CT produces a volume of data which can be manipulated, through a process known as "windowing", in order to demonstrate various bodily structures based on their ability to block the X-ray/Röntgen beam. Although historically the images generated were in the axial or transverse plane, orthogonal to the long axis of the body, modern scanners allow this volume of data to be reformatted in various planes or even as volumetric (3D) representations of structures. Although most common in medicine, CT is also used in other fields, such as nondestructive materials testing. Another example is the DigiMorph project at the University of Texas at Austin which uses a CT scanner to study biological and paleontological specimens.

The CT scan peripheral consist of :
1.scan room : in which the patient located and scanning .
2.operating room : in which the image are processed and controlled .
And both of theme are separated by a lead shielded wall .


1.The Computer Room :

تحوي هذه الغرفة على نظام إعادة بناء الصورة و ذلك اعتماداً على بيانات الأشعة السينية النافذة من المريض , حيث يوجد في هذه الغرفة 
-معالج عالي السرعة High Speed Processor System .
-مولد فولتية عالية لأنبوب الأشعة السينية X-ray High Voltage System .
-محولات طاقة System Transformer .



2.Operator`s Room
تحوي على نظام لعرض الصورة و التحكم بها , كما تحوي على نظام لتخزين الصور و أرشفتها .






The basic components of CT scan :
1.Gantry
2.(x-ray) tube
3.generator
4.detector
5.slip ring
6. data Acquisition System (DAS)
7. Image Reconstruction System
8. Image Display And Storage System
And as shown in the following :

Previous studies
Tomography
A form of tomography can be performed by moving the X-ray source and detector during an exposure. Anatomy at the target level remains sharp, while structures at different levels are blurred. By varying the extent and path of motion, a variety of effects can be obtained, with variable depth of field and different degrees of blurring of 'out of plane' structures.[3]:25
Although largely obsolete, conventional tomography is still used in specific situations such as dental imaging (orthopantomography) or in intravenous urography.
Tomosynthesis
Digital tomosynthesis combines digital image capture and processing with simple tube/detector motion as used in conventional radiographic tomography. Although there are some similarities to CT, it is a separate technique. In CT, the source/detector makes a complete 360-degree rotation about the subject obtaining a complete set of data from which images may be reconstructed. In digital tomosynthesis, only a small rotation angle (e.g., 40 degrees) with a small number of discrete exposures (e.g., 10) are used. This incomplete set of data can be digitally processed to yield images similar to conventional tomography with a limited depth of field. However, because the image processing is digital, a series of slices at different depths and with different thicknesses can be reconstructed from the same acquisition, saving both time and radiation exposure.
Because the data acquired is incomplete, tomosynthesis is unable to offer the extremely narrow slice widths that CT offers. However, higher resolution detectors can be used, allowing very-high in-plane resolution, even if the Z-axis resolution is poor. The primary interest in tomosynthesis is in breast imaging, as an extension to mammography, where it may offer better detection rates with little extra increase in radiation exposure.
Reconstruction algorithms for tomosynthesis are significantly different from conventional CT, because the conventional filtered back projection algorithm requires a complete set of data. Iterative algorithms based upon expectation maximization are most commonly used, but are extremely computationally intensive. Some manufacturers have produced practical systems using off-the-shelf GPUs to perform the reconstruction.

Advantages and hazards
Advantages over traditional radiography
There are several advantages that CT has over traditional 2D medical radiography. First, CT completely eliminates the superimposition of images of structures outside the area of interest. Second, because of the inherent high-contrast resolution of CT, differences between tissues that differ in physical density by less than 1% can be distinguished. Finally, data from a single CT imaging procedure consisting of either multiple contiguous or one helical scan can be viewed as images in the axial, coronal, or sagittal planes, depending on the diagnostic task. This is referred to as multiplanar reformatted imaging.
CT is regarded as a moderate to high radiation diagnostic technique. While technical advances have improved radiation efficiency, there has been simultaneous pressure to obtain higher-resolution imaging and use more complex scan techniques, both of which require higher doses of radiation. The improved resolution of CT has permitted the development of new investigations, which may have advantages; compared to conventional angiography for example, CT angiography avoids the invasive insertion of an arterial catheter and guidewire; CT colonography (also known as virtual colonoscopy or VC for short) may be as useful as a barium enema for detection of tumors, but may use a lower radiation dose. CT VC is increasingly being used in the UK as a diagnostic test for bowel cancer and can negate the need for a colonoscopy.
The greatly increased availability of CT, together with its value for an increasing number of conditions, has been responsible for a large rise in popularity. So large has been this rise that, in the most recent comprehensive survey in the United Kingdom, CT scans constituted 7% of all radiologic examinations, but contributed 47% of the total collective dose from medical X-ray examinations in 2000/2001.[5] Increased CT usage has led to an overall rise in the total amount of medical radiation used, despite reductions in other areas. In the United States and Japan for example, there were 26 and 64 CT scanners per 1 million population in 1996. In the U.S., there were about 3 million CT scans performed in 1980, compared to an estimated 62 million scans in 2006.[6]
The radiation dose for a particular study depends on multiple factors: volume scanned, patient build, number and type of scan sequences, and desired resolution and image quality. Additionally, two helical CT scanning parameters that can be adjusted easily and that have a profound effect on radiation dose are tube current and pitch.[7]
The increased use of CT scans has been the greatest in two fields: screening of adults (screening CT of the lung in smokers, virtual colonoscopy, CT cardiac screening and whole-body CT in asymptomatic patients) and CT imaging of children. Shortening of the scanning time to around one second, eliminating the strict need for subject to remain still or be sedated, is one of the main reasons for large increase in the pediatric population (especially for the diagnosis of appendicitis).[6] CT scans of children have been estimated to produce non-negligible increases in the probability of lifetime cancer mortality leading to calls for the use of reduced current settings for CT scans of children.[8] These calculations are based on the assumption of a linear relationship between radiation dose and cancer risk; this claim is controversial, as some but not all evidence shows that smaller radiation doses are less harmful.[6] Estimated lifetime cancer mortality risks attributable to the radiation exposure from a CT in a 1-year-old are 0.18% (abdominal) and 0.07% (head)—an order of magnitude higher than for adults—although those figures still represent a small increase in cancer mortality over the background rate. In the United States, of approximately 600,000 abdominal and head CT examinations annually performed in children under the age of 15 years, a rough estimate is that 500 of these individuals might ultimately die from cancer attributable to the CT radiation .[9] The additional risk is still very low (0.35%) compared to the background risk of dying from cancer (23%).[9] However, if these statistics are extrapolated to the current number of CT scans, the additional rise in cancer mortality could be 1.5 to 2%. Furthermore, certain conditions can require children to be exposed to multiple CT scans. Again, these calculations can be problematic because the assumptions underlying them could overestimate the risk.[6]
CT scans can be performed with different settings for lower exposure in children, although these techniques are often not employed. Surveys have suggested that currently, many CT scans are performed unnecessarily. Ultrasound scanning or magnetic resonance imaging are alternatives (for example, in appendicitis or brain imaging) without the risk of radiation exposure. Although CT scans come with an additional risk of cancer, especially in children, the benefits that stem from their use outweighs the risk in many cases.[9] Studies support informing parents of the risks of pediatric CT scanning.[10]
Typical scan doses
Examination	Typical effective dose (mSv)
(milli rem)
Chest X-ray	0.1	10
Head CT	1.5[11]
150
Screening mammography
3[6]
300
Abdomen CT	5.3[11]
530
Chest CT	5.8[11]
580
Chest, Abdomen and Pelvis CT	9.9[11]
990
CT colonography (virtual colonoscopy)
3.6 - 8.8	360 - 880
Cardiac CT angiogram	6.7-13[12]
670 - 1300
Barium enema
15[6]
1500
Neonatal abdominal CT	20[6]
2000
For comparison, survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were exposed to an average of 40 mSv of radiation. This dose is comparable to two or three extensive CT scans, and can increase the risk of cancer.[6][dubious – discuss]
Adverse reactions to contrast agents
Because contrast CT scans rely on intravenously administered contrast agents in order to provide superior image quality, there is a low but non-negligible level of risk associated with the contrast agents themselves. Many patients report nausea and discomfort, including warmth in the crotch which mimics the sensation of wetting oneself. Certain patients may experience severe and potentially life-threatening allergic reactions to the contrast dye.
The contrast agent may also induce kidney damage. The risk of this is increased with patients who have preexisting renal insufficiency, preexisting diabetes, or reduced intravascular volume. In general, if a patient has normal kidney function, then the risks of contrast nephropathy are negligible. Patients with mild kidney impairment are usually advised to ensure full hydration for several hours before and after the injection. For moderate kidney failure, the use of iodinated contrast should be avoided; this may mean using an alternative technique instead of CT e.g. MRI. Perhaps paradoxically, patients with severe renal failure requiring dialysis do not require special precautions, as their kidneys have so little function remaining that any further damage would not be noticeable and the dialysis will remove the contrast agent.
Low-Dose CT Scan
The main issue within radiology today is how to reduce the radiation dose during CT examinations without compromising the image quality. Generally, a high radiation dose results in high-quality images. A lower dose leads to increased image noise and results in unsharp images. Unfortunately, as the radiation dose increases, so does the associated risk of radiation induced cancer - even though this is extremely small. A radiation exposure of around 1200 mrem (similar to a 4-view mammogram) carried a radiation-induced cancer risk of about a million to one. However, there are several methods that can be used in order to lower the exposure to ionizing radiation during a CT scan.
1.	New software technology can significantly reduce the radiation dose. The software works as a filter that reduces random noise and enhances structures. In this way, it is possible to get high-quality images and at the same time lower the dose by as much as 30 to 70 percent. 
2.	Individualize the examination and adjust the radiation dose to the body type and body organ examined. Different body types and organs require different amounts of radiation. 
3.	Prior to every CT examination, evaluate the appropriateness of the exam whether it is motivated or if another type of examination is more suitable. 
Computed Tomography versus MRI
See the entries or paragraphs of the same name in the MRI and 2D-FT NMRI and Spectroscopy articles. The basic mathematics of the 2D-Fourier transform in CT reconstruction is very similar to the 2D-FT NMRI, but the computer data processing in CT does differ in detail, as for example in the case of the volume rendering or the artifacts elimination algorithms that are specific to CT.


Process

CT scan illustration
X-ray slice data is generated using an X-ray source that rotates around the object; X-ray sensors are positioned on the opposite side of the circle from the X-ray source. The earliest sensors were scintillation detectors, with photomultiplier tubes excited by (typically) cesium iodide crystals. Cesium iodide was replaced during the eighties by ion chambers containing high pressure Xenon gas. These systems were in turn replaced by scintillation systems based on photo diodes instead of photomultipliers and modern scintillation materials with more desirable characteristics. Many data scans are progressively taken as the object is gradually passed through the gantry. They are combined together by the mathematical procedures known as tomographic reconstruction. The data are arranged in a matrix in memory, and each data point is convolved with its neighbours according with a seed algorithm using Fast Fourier Transform techniques. This dramatically increases the resolution of each Voxel (volume element). Then a process known as Back Projection essentially reverses the acquisition geometry and stores the result in another memory array. This data can then be displayed, photographed, or used as input for further processing, such as multi-planar reconstruction.
Newer machines with faster computer systems and newer software strategies can process not only individual cross sections but continuously changing cross sections as the gantry, with the object to be imaged, is slowly and smoothly slid through the X-ray circle. These are called helical or spiral CT machines. Their computer systems integrate the data of the moving individual slices to generate three dimensional volumetric information (3D-CT scan), in turn viewable from multiple different perspectives on attached CT workstation monitors. This type of data acquisition requires enormous processing power, as the data are arriving in a continuous stream and must be processed in real-time.
In conventional CT machines, an X-ray tube and detector are physically rotated behind a circular shroud (see the image above right); in the electron beam tomography (EBT) the tube is far larger and higher power to support the high temporal resolution. The electron beam is deflected in a hollow funnel shaped vacuum chamber. X-rays are generated when the beam hits the stationary target. The detector is also stationary. This arrangement can result in very fast scans, but is extremely expensive.
The data stream representing the varying radiographic intensity sensed at the detectors on the opposite side of the circle during each sweep is then computer processed to calculate cross-sectional estimations of the radiographic density, expressed in Hounsfield units. Sweeps cover 360 or just over 180 degrees in conventional machines, 220 degrees in EBT.

CT scanner with cover removed to show the principle of operation
CT is used in medicine as a diagnostic tool and as a guide for interventional procedures. Sometimes contrast materials such as intravenous iodinated contrast are used. This is useful to highlight structures such as blood vessels that otherwise would be difficult to delineate from their surroundings. Using contrast material can also help to obtain functional information about tissues.
Pixels in an image obtained by CT scanning are displayed in terms of relative radiodensity. The pixel itself is displayed according to the mean attenuation of the tissue(s) that it corresponds to on a scale from +3071 (most attenuating) to -1024 (least attenuating) on the Hounsfield scale. Pixel is a two dimensional unit based on the matrix size and the field of view. When the CT slice thickness is also factored in, the unit is known as a Voxel, which is a three dimensional unit. The phenomenon that one part of the detector cannot differ between different tissues is called the "Partial Volume Effect". That means that a big amount of cartilage and a thin layer of compact bone can cause the same attenuation in a voxel as hyperdense cartilage alone. Water has an attenuation of 0 Hounsfield units (HU) while air is -1000 HU, cancellous bone is typically +400 HU, cranial bone can reach 2000 HU or more (os temporale) and can cause artifacts. The attenuation of metallic implants depends on atomic number of the element used: Titanium usually has an amount of +1000 HU, iron steel can completely extinguish the X-ray and is therefore responsible for well-known line-artifacts in computed tomograms. Artifacts are caused by abrupt transitions between low- and high-density materials, which results in data values that exceed the dynamic range of the processing electronics.
Windowing
Windowing is the process of using the calculated Hounsfield units to make an image. A typical display device can only resolve 256 shades of gray, some specialty medical displays can resolve up to 1024 shades of gray. These shades of gray can be distributed over a wide range of HU values to get an overview of structures that attenuate the beam to widely varying degrees. Alternatively, these shades of gray can be distributed over a narrow range of HU values (called a "narrow window") centered over the average HU value of a particular structure to be evaluated. In this way, subtle variations in the internal makeup of the structure can be discerned. This is a commonly used image processing technique known as contrast compression. For example, to evaluate the abdomen in order to find subtle masses in the liver, one might use liver windows. Choosing 70 HU as an average HU value for liver, the shades of gray can be distributed over a narrow window or range. One could use 170 HU as the narrow window, with 85 HU above the 70 HU average value; 85 HU below it. Therefore the liver window would extend from -15 HU to +155 HU. All the shades of gray for the image would be distributed in this range of Hounsfield values. Any HU value below -15 would be pure black, and any HU value above 155 HU would be pure white in this example. Using this same logic, bone windows would use a "wide window" (to evaluate everything from fat-containing medullary bone that contains the marrow, to the dense cortical bone), and the center or level would be a value in the hundreds of Hounsfield units. To an untrained person, these window controls would correspond to the more familiar "Brightness" (Window Level) and "Contrast" (Window Width).
Artifacts
Although CT is a relatively accurate test, it is liable to produce artifacts, such as the following.

Example of Beam Hardening
•	Aliasing Artifact or Streaks 
These appear as dark lines which radiate away from sharp corners. It occurs because it is impossible for the scanner to 'sample' or take enough projections of the object, which is usually metallic. It can also occur when an insufficient X-ray tube current is selected, and insufficient penetration of the x-ray occurs. These artifacts are also closely tied to motion during a scan. This type of artifact commonly occurs in head images around the pituitary fossa area.
•	Partial Volume Effect 
This appears as 'blurring' over sharp edges. It is due to the scanner being unable to differentiate between a small amount of high-density material (e.g. bone) and a larger amount of lower density (e.g. cartilage). The processor tries to average out the two densities or structures, and information is lost. This can be partially overcome by scanning using thinner slices.
•	Ring Artifact 
Probably the most common mechanical artifact, the image of one or many 'rings' appears within an image. This is usually due to a detector fault.
•	Noise Artifact 
This appears as graining on the image and is caused by a low signal to noise ratio. This occurs more commonly when a thin slice thickness is used. It can also occur when the power supplied to the X-ray tube is insufficient to penetrate the anatomy.
•	Motion Artifact 
This is seen as blurring and/or streaking which is caused by movement of the object being imaged.
•	Windmill 
Streaking appearances can occur when the detectors intersect the reconstruction plane. This can be reduced with filters or a reduction in pitch.


•	Beam Hardening 
This can give a 'cupped appearance'. It occurs when there is more attenuation in the center of the object than around the edge. This is easily corrected by filtration and software.
Three-dimensional (3D) image reconstruction
Some parts of this article may be misleading.
Please help clarify this article. Suggestions may be on the talk page.

The principle
Because contemporary CT scanners offer isotropic, or near isotropic, resolution, display of images does not need to be restricted to the conventional axial images. Instead, it is possible for a software program to build a volume by 'stacking' the individual slices one on top of the other. The program may then display the volume in an alternative manner.
Multiplanar reconstruction

Typical screen layout for diagnostic software, showing one 3D and three MPR views
Multiplanar reconstruction (MPR) is the simplest method of reconstruction. A volume is built by stacking the axial slices. The software then cuts slices through the volume in a different plane (usually orthogonal). Optionally, a special projection method, such as maximum-intensity projection (MIP) or minimum-intensity projection (mIP), can be used to build the reconstructed slices.
MPR is frequently used for examining the spine. Axial images through the spine will only show one vertebral body at a time and cannot reliably show the intervertebral discs. By reformatting the volume, it becomes much easier to visualise the position of one vertebral body in relation to the others.
Modern software allows reconstruction in non-orthogonal (oblique) planes so that the optimal plane can be chosen to display an anatomical structure. This may be particularly useful for visualising the structure of the bronchi as these do not lie orthogonal to the direction of the scan.
For vascular imaging, curved-plane reconstruction can be performed. This allows bends in a vessel to be 'straightened' so that the entire length can be visualised on one image, or a short series of images. Once a vessel has been 'straightened' in this way, quantitative measurements of length and cross sectional area can be made, so that surgery or interventional treatment can be planned.
MIP reconstructions enhance areas of high radiodensity, and so are useful for angiographic studies. mIP reconstructions tend to enhance air spaces so are useful for assessing lung structure.
3D rendering techniques
Surface rendering 
A threshold value of radiodensity is chosen by the operator (e.g. a level that corresponds to bone). A threshold level is set, using edge detection image processing algorithms. From this, a 3-dimensional model can be constructed and displayed on screen. Multiple models can be constructed from various different thresholds, allowing different colors to represent each anatomical component such as bone, muscle, and cartilage. However, the interior structure of each element is not visible in this mode of operation. 
Volume rendering 
Surface rendering is limited in that it will only display surfaces which meet a threshold density, and will only display the surface that is closest to the imaginary viewer. In volume rendering, transparency and colors are used to allow a better representation of the volume to be shown in a single image - e.g. the bones of the pelvis could be displayed as semi-transparent, so that even at an oblique angle, one part of the image does not conceal another. 
Image segmentation
Where different structures have similar radiodensity, it can become impossible to separate them simply by adjusting volume rendering parameters. The solution is called segmentation, a manual or automatic procedure that can remove the unwanted structures from the image.
















Products and Applications

CT - Computed Tomography System Block Diagram




Computed tomography (CT) produces 3D images of internal human body parts from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken around a single axis of rotation. When compared with a traditional X-ray radiography, a CT image exhibits significantly improved contrast.
Semiconductors play a very important role by delivering the intense image processing that CT requires, enabling systems with increased density, flexibility and high performance. TI delivers a range of solutions for CT systems, for channel card front end and control card subsystems.​


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## جوهرة المحيط (4 يوليو 2009)

Diagnostic use
Since its introduction in the 1970s, CT has become an important tool in medical imaging to supplement X-rays and medical ultrasonography. Although it is still quite expensive, it is the gold standard in the diagnosis of a large number of different disease entities. It has more recently begun to also be used for preventive medicine or screening for disease, for example CT colonography for patients with a high risk of colon cancer. Although a number of institutions offer full-body scans for the general population, this practice remains controversial due to its lack of proven benefit, cost, radiation exposure, and the risk of finding 'incidental' abnormalities that may trigger additional investigations.
Head

Displaced Ventricles in Brain CT


CT scanning of the head is typically used to detect:
1.	bleeding, brain injury and skull fractures 
2.	bleeding due to a ruptured/leaking aneurysm in a patient with a sudden severe headache 
3.	a blood clot or bleeding within the brain shortly after a patient exhibits symptoms of a stroke 
4.	a stroke 
5.	brain tumors 
6.	enlarged brain cavities in patients with hydrocephalus 
7.	diseases/malformations of the skull 
8.	evaluate the extent of bone and soft tissue damage in patients with facial trauma, and planning surgical reconstruction 
9.	diagnose diseases of the temporal bone on the side of the skull, which may be causing hearing problems 
10.	determine whether inflammation or other changes are present in the paranasal sinuses 
11.	plan radiation therapy for cancer of the brain or other tissues 
12.	guide the passage of a needle used to obtain a tissue sample (biopsy) from the brain 
13.	assess aneurysms or arteriovenous malformations 
Chest
CT can be used for detecting both acute and chronic changes in the lung parenchyma, that is, the internals of the lungs. It is particularly relevant here because normal two dimensional x-rays do not show such defects. A variety of different techniques are used depending on the suspected abnormality. For evaluation of chronic interstitial processes (emphysema, fibrosis, and so forth), thin sections with high spatial frequency reconstructions are used - often scans are performed both in inspiration and expiration. This special technique is called High Resolution CT (HRCT). HRCT is normally done with thin section with skipped areas between the thin sections. Therefore it produces a sampling of the lung and not continuous images. Continuous images are provided in a standard CT of the chest.
For detection of airspace disease (such as pneumonia) or cancer, relatively thick sections and general purpose image reconstruction techniques may be adequate. IV contrast may also be used as it clarifies the anatomy and boundaries of the great vessels and improves assessment of the mediastinum and hilar regions for lymphadenopathy; this is particularly important for accurate assessment of cancer.
CT angiography of the chest is also becoming the primary method for detecting pulmonary embolism (PE) and aortic dissection, and requires accurately timed rapid injections of contrast (Bolus Tracking) and high-speed helical scanners. CT is the standard method of evaluating abnormalities seen on chest X-ray and of following findings of uncertain acute significance.
More than 62 million scans are ordered each year, according to the 2007 New England Journal of Medicine study. 31% of 62 million (19,2 million) is used for lung CT's.
Pulmonary angiogram
CT pulmonary angiogram (CTPA) is a medical diagnostic test used to diagnose pulmonary embolism (PE). It employs computed tomography to obtain an image of the pulmonary arteries.
It is a preferred choice of imaging in the diagnosis of PE due to its minimally invasive nature for the patient, whose only requirement for the scan is a cannula (usually a 20G).
MDCT (multi detector CT) scanners give the optimum resolution and image quality for this test. Images are usually taken on a 0.625 mm slice thickness, although 2 mm is sufficient. 50 - 100 mls of contrast is given to the patient at a rate of 4 ml/s. The tracker/locator is placed at the level of the Pulmonary Arteries, which sit roughly at the level of the carina. Images are acquired with the maximum intensity of radio-opaque contrast in the Pulmonary Arteries. This is done using bolus tracking.
CT machines are now so sophisticated that the test can be done with a patient visit of 5 minutes with an approximate scan time of only 5 seconds or less.

Example of a CTPA, demonstrating a saddle embolus
A normal CTPA scan will show the contrast filling the pulmonary vessels, looking bright white. Ideally the aorta should be empty of contrast, to reduce any partial volume artifact which may result in a false positive. Any mass filling defects, such as an embolus, will appear dark in place of the contrast, filling / blocking the space where blood should be flowing into the lungs.
Cardiac
With the advent of subsecond rotation combined with multi-slice CT (up to 64-slice), high resolution and high speed can be obtained at the same time, allowing excellent imaging of the coronary arteries (cardiac CT angiography). Images with an even higher temporal resolution can be formed using retrospective ECG gating. In this technique, each portion of the heart is imaged more than once while an ECG trace is recorded. The ECG is then used to correlate the CT data with their corresponding phases of cardiac contraction. Once this correlation is complete, all data that were recorded while the heart was in motion (systole) can be ignored and images can be made from the remaining data that happened to be acquired while the heart was at rest (diastole). In this way, individual frames in a cardiac CT investigation have a better temporal resolution than the shortest tube rotation time.
Because the heart is effectively imaged more than once (as described above), cardiac CT angiography results in a relatively high radiation exposure around 12 mSv. For the sake of comparison, a chest X-ray carries a dose of approximately 0.02[4] to 0.2 mSv and natural background radiation exposure is around 0.01 mSv/day. Thus, cardiac CTA is equivalent to approximately 100-600 chest X-rays or over 3 years worth of natural background radiation. Methods are available to decrease this exposure, however, such as prospectively decreasing radiation output based on the concurrently acquired ECG (aka tube current modulation.) This can result in a significant decrease in radiation exposure, at the risk of compromising image quality if there is any arrhythmia during the acquisition. The significance of radiation doses in the diagnostic imaging range has not been proven, although the possibility of inducing an increased cancer risk across a population is a source of significant concern. This potential risk must be weighed against the competing risk of not performing a test and potentially not diagnosing a significant health problem such as coronary artery disease.
It is uncertain whether this modality will replace invasive coronary catheterization. Currently, it appears that the greatest utility of cardiac CT lies in ruling out coronary artery disease rather than ruling it in. This is because the test has a high sensitivity (greater than 90%) and thus a negative test result means that a patient is very unlikely to have coronary artery disease and can be worked up for other causes of their chest symptoms. This is termed a high negative predictive value. A positive result is less conclusive and often will be confirmed (and possibly treated) with subsequent invasive angiography. The positive predictive value of cardiac CTA is estimated at approximately 82% and the negative predictive value is around 93%.
Dual Source CT scanners, introduced in 2005, allow higher temporal resolution by acquiring a full CT slice in only half a rotation, thus reducing motion blurring at high heart rates and potentially allowing for shorter breath-hold time. This is particularly useful for ill patients who have difficulty holding their breath or who are unable to take heart-rate lowering medication.
The speed advantages of 64-slice MSCT have rapidly established it as the minimum standard for newly installed CT scanners intended for cardiac scanning. Manufacturers are now actively developing 256-slice and true 'volumetric' scanners, primarily for their improved cardiac scanning performance.
The latest MSCT scanners acquire images only at 70-80% of the R-R interval (late diastole). This prospective gating can reduce effective dose from 10-15mSv to as little as 1.2mSv in follow-up patients acquiring at 75% of the R-R interval. Effective doses at a centre with well trained staff doing coronary imaging can average less than the doses for conventional coronary angiography.
Abdominal and pelvic
CT is a sensitive method for diagnosis of abdominal diseases. It is used frequently to determine stage of cancer and to follow progress. It is also a useful test to investigate acute abdominal pain (especially of the lower quadrants, whereas ultrasound is the preferred first line investigation for right upper quadrant pain). Renal stones, appendicitis, pancreatitis, diverticulitis, abdominal aortic aneurysm, and bowel obstruction are conditions that are readily diagnosed and assessed with CT. CT is also the first line for detecting solid organ injury after trauma.
Oral and/or rectal contrast may be used depending on the indications for the scan. A dilute (2% w/v) suspension of barium sulfate is most commonly used. The concentrated barium sulfate preparations used for fluoroscopy e.g. barium enema are too dense and cause severe artifacts on CT. Iodinated contrast agents may be used if barium is contraindicated (for example, suspicion of bowel injury). Other agents may be required to optimize the imaging of specific organs, such as rectally administered gas (air or carbon dioxide) or fluid (water) for a colon study, or oral water for a stomach study.
CT has limited application in the evaluation of the pelvis. For the female pelvis in particular, ultrasound and MRI are the imaging modalities of choice. Nevertheless, it may be part of abdominal scanning (e.g. for tumors), and has uses in assessing fractures.
CT is also used in osteoporosis studies and research alongside dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Both CT and DXA can be used to assess bone mineral density (BMD) which is used to indicate bone strength, however CT results do not correlate exactly with DXA (the gold standard of BMD measurement). CT is far more expensive, and subjects patients to much higher levels of ionizing radiation, so it is used infrequently.
Extremities
CT is often used to image complex fractures, especially ones around joints, because of its ability to reconstruct the area of interest in multiple planes. Fractures, ligamentous injuries and dislocations can easily be recognised with a 0.2 mm resolution.


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## جوهرة المحيط (4 يوليو 2009)

*أساسيات في الطبقي المحوري

CT Fundamentals

هذا شرح بالعربي و مختصر للشرح
استخدامات الجهاز 

هو جهاز يستخدم للحصول على صور مقطعية داخل جسم الإنسان Cross-Sectional Images , و ذلك عن طريق إدخال المريض تدريجياً داخل فتحة الجهاز Aperture بينما يقوم أنبوب الأشعة السينية بالدوران حول المريض و إسقاط حزم الأشعة السينية من زوايا مختلفة على العضو المراد تصويره.




يمكن لجهاز الطبقي المحوري أن يحصل على صور لمختلف أجزاء جسم الإنسان مثل : 
الصدر , البطن , الحوض , الرأس , الأطراف , الكبد , البنكرياس , الأمعاء , الكلى , المرارة , الغدتان الكظريتان , الرئتين , القلب , الأوعية الدموية , العظام , النخاع الشوكي .



الأقسام الرئيسية لجهاز الطبقي المحوري 

في الأجهزة القديمة نوعاً ما يتكون الجهاز من الأقسام التالية :


1-نظام تحصيل الصورة Data Acquisition System : و المتوضع في غرفة الماسحة Scanner Room.
2-نظام إعادة بناء الصورة Image Reconstruction System : و المتوضع في غرفة الكمبيوتر Computer Room .
3-نظام عرض الصورة و تخزينها Image Display And Storage System : و المتوضع في غرفة مشغل الجهاز Operator`s Room .






-غرفة الماسحة Scanner Room : 

يتوضع أنبوب الأشعة السينية و الكواشف detectors التي تلتقط الأشعة النافذة من المريض ضمن الـ Gantry الموضحة في الشكل التالي. كما يتوضع ضمن هذه الغرفة أيضاً طاولة المريض (Couch Or Patient Support) و التي تسمح بتحريك المريض ضمن فتحة الــ Gantry للحصول على الصورة من المكان المطلوب .






-غرفة الكمبيوتر The Computer Room :

تحوي هذه الغرفة على نظام إعادة بناء الصورة و ذلك اعتماداً على بيانات الأشعة السينية النافذة من المريض , حيث يوجد في هذه الغرفة :

-معالج عالي السرعة High Speed Processor System .
-مولد فولتية عالية لأنبوب الأشعة السينية X-ray High Voltage System .
-محولات طاقة System Transformer .






-غرفة مشغل الجهاز Operator`s Room :

تحوي على نظام لعرض الصورة و التحكم بها , كما تحوي على نظام لتخزين الصور و أرشفتها .




يوضح الشكل التالي نظام طبقي محوري حديث مختلف عن النظام السابق , حيث تتوضع في هذا النظام محولات الطاقة و مولد الفولتية العالية ضمن الـ Gantry , كما يتوضع نظام إعادة بناء الصورة ضمن غرفة مشغل الجهاز .

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## ليدي لين (4 يوليو 2009)

قرات موضوعين لك واستفدت كثيرا كتبها الله لك في ميزان حسناتك 
اشكرك كثيرا


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## جوهرة المحيط (7 يوليو 2009)

*مشكوووووووووووووووووووووووووووووووووووووورة*


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## مهندسة جادة (7 يوليو 2009)

Thankssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss


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## bme-fuad (7 يوليو 2009)

تسلموووووا بذلت مجهود يستحق الثناء ................. نرجوالمزيد!!!!


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## مهموم اليمن (9 يوليو 2009)

الاخت جوهرة المحيط الموضوع جدا شيق واعجبنى كثيرا اتمنى لك التوفيق والاستمرار فى اثراء الموضوع بكل ما هو جديد 
عبد الله


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## م قتيبه (15 يوليو 2009)

مشكور والله ما قصرت 
جزاك الله خيرا 
الموضوع جدا مفيدا


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## جوهرة المحيط (30 يوليو 2009)

*السلام عليكم و رحمة الله وبركاته*

*ان اساس جهاز الطبقي المحوري هو عرض الاجزاء الداخلية لجسم الانسان علي شكل مقطع ويقوم بتنزيل الالوان الافتراضية لتلك الاجزاء اي انه يختلف عن السونار لانه يعتدمد على الاشعة السينية *


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## ام وائل الأثرية (17 أغسطس 2009)

السلام عليكم شكرا على الموضوع 
لكن الجهاز الطبقي المحوري لايستخدم لتصوير القلب 
شكرا


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## احسن مهندس طبي (18 أغسطس 2009)

والله اني عارف انه جهاز جبار بس لو كان بالعربي كان افضل على العموم مشكورين وايد


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## محمد عبدالله عبدله (18 أغسطس 2009)

جزاكم الله خيرا على هذا المجهود 

وفي إنتظار المزيد ولا تنسى نية نفع المسلمين

أبو عبدالله المصري


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## muha73 (29 أغسطس 2010)

مامعنى مصطاح slice مثلا نقول جهاز 4 او 16 slice ??????????????


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## katanoma (29 أغسطس 2010)

nice work, thanx for this great effort..


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## زمن العامري (1 سبتمبر 2010)

شكرا وبارك الله فيك


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## عباس اللامي (4 سبتمبر 2010)

الله يبارك فيك ويسدد خطواتك


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## العيون الدامعة (30 سبتمبر 2010)

شكرا جزيلا


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## حسام سوني (8 أكتوبر 2010)

السلام عليكم أشكركم على هذا الموضوع بس ممكن أحد يساعدني في هذا المجال وشيريد أنا حاضر ممكن أحد عندة سوفت وير الجهاز وين أحصل على قطع غيار للجهاز وشكد ميكون الثمن أنا مستعد أدفع بس محتاج طريقة صيانة الجهاز وقطع غيار الجهاز وبالاخص التيوب علما انا اجيد صيانة الجهاز لاكن يتعذر علية الحصول على قطع الغيار


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