# Internal combustion engine/ماكنة الاحتراق الداخلي



## حسن هادي (20 أغسطس 2007)

نرفق لكم اخوتنا الاعزاء في سلسلة المواضيع المدرجة ذات الارتباط النسبي من ناحية التداخل في بعض المعادلات او الدورات الحرارية موضوعا مبسطا عن ماكنة الاحتراق الداخلي في عدة مشاركات *لغرض اتمام الفائدة ولتسهيل عملية البحث عن تفاصيل هذا الموضوع ومن الله التوفيق*
*******************************************************Internal combustion engine
*From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia*

(Redirected from Car engine)
Jump to: navigation, search
The *internal combustion engine* is an engine in which the combustion of fuel and an oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. This exothermic reaction creates gases at high temperature and pressure, which are permitted to expand. The defining feature of an internal combustion engine is that useful work is performed by the expanding hot gases acting directly to cause movement of solid parts of the engine, by acting on pistons, rotors, or even by pressing on and moving the entire engine itself.
This contrasts with external combustion engines, such as steam engines and Stirling engines, which use an external combustion chamber to heat a separate working fluid, which then in turn does work, for example by moving a piston or a turbine.
The term _Internal Combustion Engine_ (ICE) is almost always used to refer specifically to reciprocating piston engines, Wankel engines and similar designs in which combustion is intermittent. However, continuous combustion engines, such as jet engines, most rockets and many gas turbines are also internal combustion engines

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 Four-stroke cycle (or Otto cycle)
1. intake
2. compression
3. power
4. exhaust

تقبلوا تحياتي اخوكم حسن


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## حسن هادي (20 أغسطس 2007)

ندرج لكم ادناه روابط الموضوع المتشعبة لكي يتسنى لكم تتبع الرابط الذي تحتاجونه *
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<LI class=toclevel-1>1 History
1.1 Applications
<LI class=toclevel-1>2 Operation <LI class=toclevel-1>3 Petroleum internal combustion engines
<LI class=toclevel-2>3.1 Gasoline Ignition Process 
3.2 Diesel Engine Ignition Process
<LI class=toclevel-1>4 Energy and pollution
<LI class=toclevel-2>4.1 Engine Efficiency 
4.2 Engine pollution
<LI class=toclevel-1>5 Parts <LI class=toclevel-1>6 Classification
<LI class=toclevel-2>6.1 Principles of operation <LI class=toclevel-2>6.2 Engine cycle
<LI class=toclevel-3>6.2.1 Two-stroke <LI class=toclevel-3>6.2.2 Four-stroke <LI class=toclevel-3>6.2.3 Five-stroke <LI class=toclevel-3>6.2.4 Six-stroke <LI class=toclevel-3>6.2.5 Bourke engine <LI class=toclevel-3>6.2.6 Controlled Combustion Engine <LI class=toclevel-3>6.2.7 Wankel <LI class=toclevel-3>6.2.8 Gas turbine 
6.2.9 Disused methods
<LI class=toclevel-2>6.3 Fuels and oxidizers
<LI class=toclevel-3>6.3.1 Oxidizers 
6.3.2 Hydrogen engine
<LI class=toclevel-2>6.4 Cylinders <LI class=toclevel-2>6.5 Ignition system
<LI class=toclevel-3>6.5.1 Spark <LI class=toclevel-3>6.5.2 Compression 
6.5.3 Timing
<LI class=toclevel-2>6.6 Fuel systems <LI class=toclevel-2>6.7 Engine configuration <LI class=toclevel-2>6.8 Engine capacity 
6.9 Lubrication Systems
<LI class=toclevel-1>7 Diagnosis <LI class=toclevel-1>8 References <LI class=toclevel-1>9 Bibliography <LI class=toclevel-1>10 See also 
11 External links


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## حسن هادي (20 أغسطس 2007)

لمحات تاريخية
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History


 


A colorized automobile engine




 


Early internal-combustion engines were used to power farm equipment similar to these models.


The first internal combustion engines did not have compression, but ran on air/fuel mixture sucked or blown in during the first part of the intake stroke. The most significant distinction between *modern internal combustion engines* and the early designs is the use of compression and in particular of in-cylinder compression.

1206: Al-Jazari demonstrates an early rotary to reciprocating motion, which is a waterwheel-powered pump
1509: Leonardo da Vinci described a compression-less engine.
1673: Christiaan Huygens described a compression-less engine.
17th century: English inventor Sir Samuel Morland used gunpowder to drive water pumps, essentially creating the first rudimentary internal combustion engine.
1780's: Alessandro Volta built a toy electric pistol ([1]) in which an electric spark exploded a mixture of air and hydrogen, firing a cork from the end of the gun.
1794: Robert Street built a compression-less engine whose principle of operation would dominate for nearly a century.
1806: Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine powered by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen.
1823: Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially. It was compression-less and based on what Hardenberg calls the "Leonardo cycle," which, as this name implies, was already out of date at that time.
1824: French physicist Sadi Carnot established the thermodynamic theory of idealized heat engines. This scientifically established the need for compression to increase the difference between the upper and lower working temperatures.
1826 April 1: The American Samuel Morey received a patent for a compression-less "Gas Or Vapor Engine".
1838: a patent was granted to William Barnet (English). This was the first recorded suggestion of in-cylinder compression.
1854: The Italians Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci patented the first working efficient internal combustion engine in London (pt. Num. 1072) but did not go into production with it. It was similar in concept to the successful Otto Langen indirect engine, but not so well worked out in detail.
1856: in Florence at _Fonderia del Pignone_ (now Nuovo Pignone, a subsidiary of General Electric) Pietro Benini realized a working prototype of the Barsanti-Matteucci engine, supplying 5 HP. In subsequent years he developed more powerful engines - with one or two pistons - which served as steady power sources, replacing steam engines.
1860: Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir (1822 - 1900) produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine closely similar in appearance to a horizontal double-acting steam beam engine, with cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, and flywheel in which the gas essentially took the place of the steam. This was the first internal combustion engine to be produced in numbers.
1862: German inventor Nikolaus Otto designed an indirect-acting free-piston compression-less engine whose greater efficiency won the support of Langen and then most of the market, which at that time, was mostly for small stationary engines fueled by lighting gas.
1870: In Vienna Siegfried Marcus put the first mobile gasoline engine on a handcart.
1876: Nikolaus Otto working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach developed a practical four-stroke cycle (Otto cycle) engine. The German courts, however, did not hold his patent to cover all in-cylinder compression engines or even the four stroke cycle, and after this decision in-cylinder compression became universal.


 


Karl Benz



1879: Karl Benz, working independently, was granted a patent for his internal combustion engine, a reliable two-stroke gas engine, based on Nikolaus Otto's design of the four-stroke engine. Later Benz designed and built his own four-stroke engine that was used in his automobiles, which became the first automobiles in production.
1882: James Atkinson invented the Atkinson cycle engine. Atkinson’s engine had one power phase per revolution together with different intake and expansion volumes making it more efficient than the Otto cycle.
1891 - Herbert Akroyd Stuart built his oil engine, leasing rights to Hornsby of England to build them. They build the first cold start, compression ignition engines. In 1892, they installed the first ones in a water pumping station. An experimental higher-pressure version produced self-sustaining ignition through compression alone in the same year.
1892: Rudolf Diesel developed his Carnot heat engine type motor burning powdered coal dust.
1893 February 23: Rudolf Diesel received a patent for the diesel engine.
1896: Karl Benz invented the boxer engine, also known as the horizontally opposed engine, in which the corresponding pistons reach top dead centre at the same time, thus balancing each other in momentum.
1900: Rudolf Diesel demonstrated the diesel engine in the 1900 _Exposition Universelle_ (World's Fair) using peanut oil (see biodiesel).
1900: Wilhelm Maybach designed an engine built at Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft—following the specifications of Emil Jellinek—who required the engine to be named _Daimler-Mercedes_ after his daughter. In 1902 automobiles with that engine were put into production by DMG.


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## حسن هادي (20 أغسطس 2007)

الروابط فعالة


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## حسن هادي (20 أغسطس 2007)

*Applications*

Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion in automobiles, equipment, and other portable machinery. In mobile equipment internal combustion is advantageous, since it can provide high power to weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy-density. These engines have appeared in transport in almost all automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotives, generally using petroleum (called All-Petroleum Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles or APICEVs) . Where very high power is required, such as jet aircraft, helicopters and large ships, they appear mostly in the form of turbines.
They are also used for electric generators (i.e. 12 V generators) and by industry.


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## حسن هادي (20 أغسطس 2007)

Operation

All *internal combustion engines* depend on the exothermic chemical process of combustion: the reaction of a fuel, typically with the oxygen from the air, although other oxidizers such as nitrous oxide may be employed. Also see stoichiometry.
The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived from mostly petroleum. These include the fuels known as dieselfuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane gas. Most internal combustion engines designed for gasoline can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications except for the fuel delivery components. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as Ethanol and biodiesel, a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soy bean oil, can also be used. Some can also run on Hydrogen gas.
All internal combustion engines must achieve ignition in their cylinders to create combustion. Typically engines use either a spark ignition (SI) method or a compression ignition (CI) system. In the past other methods using hot tubes or flames have been used


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## حسن هادي (20 أغسطس 2007)

ارجو ان يكون تسلسل الموضوع بصورة جيدة ومفيدة وتقبلوا تحياتي :6:


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## حسن هادي (20 أغسطس 2007)

Petroleum internal combustion engines
_Main article: Petroleum_

*[edit] Gasoline Ignition Process*

Electrical/Gasoline-type ignition systems (that can also run on other fuels as previously mentioned) generally rely on a combination of a lead-acid battery and an induction coil to provide a high voltage electrical spark to ignite the air-fuel mix in the engine's cylinders. This battery can be recharged during operation using an electricity-generating device, such as an alternator or generator driven by the engine. Gasoline engines take in a mixture of air and gasoline and compress to less than 185 psi and use a spark plug to ignite the mixture when it is compressed by the piston head in each cylinder.

*[edit] Diesel Engine Ignition Process*

Compression ignition systems, such as the diesel engine and HCCI engines, rely solely on heat and pressure created by the engine in its compression process for ignition. Compression that occurs is usually more than three times higher than a gasoline engine. Diesel engines will take in air only, and shortly before peak compression, a small quantity of diesel fuel is sprayed into the cylinder via a fuel injector that allows the fuel to instantly ignite. HCCI type engines will take in both air and fuel but will continue to rely on an unaided auto-combustion process due to higher pressures and heat. This is also why diesel and HCCI engines are also more susceptible to cold starting issues though they will run just as well in cold weather once started. Most diesels also have battery and charging systems, however this system is secondary and is added by manufacturers as luxury for ease of starting, turning fuel on and off (which can also be done via a switch or mechanical apparatus), and for running auxiliary electrical components and accessories. Most old engines, however, rely on electrical systems that also control the combustion process to increase efficiency and reduce emissions.


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## حسن هادي (20 أغسطس 2007)

Energy and pollution
Once ignited and burnt, the combustion products, hot gases, have more available energy than the original compressed fuel/air mixture (which had higher chemical energy). The available energy is manifested as high temperature and pressure which can be translated into work by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high pressure product gases inside the cylinders drive the engine's pistons.
Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening a valve or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (Top Dead Center - TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle, which varies between engines. Any heat not translated into work is normally considered a waste product, and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system.

*[edit] Engine Efficiency*

The efficiency of various types of internal combustion engines vary, but it is lower than electric motor energy efficiency. Most gasoline fueled internal combustion engines, even when aided with turbochargers and stock efficiency aids, have a mechanical efficiency of about 20% [1][2]. The efficiency may be as high as 37% at the optimum operating point in engines where this is a high priority such as that of the Prius. Most internal combustion engines waste about 36% of the energy in gasoline as heat lost to the cooling system and another 38% through the exhaust. The rest, about 6%, is lost to friction.
Hydrogen Fuel Injection, or HFI, is an engine add on system that improves the fuel economy of internal combustion engines by injecting hydrogen as a combustion enhancement into the intake manifold. Fuel economy gains of 15% to 50% can be seen[_citation needed_]. A small amount of hydrogen added to the intake air-fuel charge increases the octane rating of the combined fuel charge and enhances the flame velocity, thus permitting the engine to operate with more advanced ignition timing, a higher compression ratio, and a leaner air-to-fuel mixture than otherwise possible. The result is lower pollution with more power and increased efficiency. Some HFI systems use an on board electrolyzer to generate the small amount of hydrogen needed in the system, around 5% of total Btu. A small tank of pressurized hydrogen can also be used, but this method necessitates refilling. Hydrogen in liquid form is seldom used because it is difficult to store.
There has also been discussion of new types of internal combustion engines, such as the Scuderi Split Cycle Engine, that utilize high compression pressures in excess of 2000 psi and combust after top-dead-center (the highest & most compressed point in an internal combustion piston stroke). The claimed efficiency of this engine, by calculation, is 42%. This has yet to be demonstrated as of March 2007.

*[edit] Engine pollution*

_Main article: Global warming_
Generally internal combustion engines, particularly reciprocating internal combustion engines, produce moderately high pollution levels, due to incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel, leading to carbon monoxide and some soot along with oxides of nitrogen & sulfur and some unburnt hydrocarbons depending on the operating conditions and the fuel/air ratio. The primary causes of this are the need to operate near the stoichiometric ratio for petrol engines in order to achieve combustion (the fuel would burn more completely in excess air) and the "quench" of the flame by the relatively cool cylinder walls. Quenching is commonly observed in diesel (compression ignition) engines which run on natural gas, when running at lower speed. It dramatically reduces the efficiency and increases knocking and might cause the engine to stall.
Diesel engines produce a wide range of pollutants including aerosols of many small particles (PM10) that are believed to penetrate deeply into human lungs. Engines running on liquified petroleum gas (LPG) are very low in emissions as LPG burns very cleanly and does not contain sulphur or lead.

Many fuels contain sulfur leading to sulfur oxides (SOx) in the exhaust, promoting acid rain.
The high temperature of combustion creates greater proportions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), demonstrated to be hazardous to both plant and animal health.
Net carbon dioxide production is not a necessary feature of engines, but since most engines are run from fossil fuels this usually occurs. If engines are run from biomass, then no net carbon dioxide is produced as the growing plants absorb as much, or more carbon dioxide while growing.
Hydrogen engines need only produce water, but when air is used as the oxidizer nitrogen oxides are also produced.
*[edit] Parts*



 


An illustration of several key components in a typical four-stroke engine


For a four-stroke engine, key parts of the engine include the crankshaft (purple), one or more camshafts (red and blue) and valves. For a two-stroke engine, there may simply be an exhaust outlet and fuel inlet instead of a valve system. In both types of engines, there are one or more cylinders (grey and green) and for each cylinder there is a spark plug (darker-grey), a piston (yellow) and a crank (purple). A single sweep of the cylinder by the piston in an upward or downward motion is known as a stroke. The downward stroke that occurs directly after the air/fuel mix passes from the carburetor to the cylinder where it is ignited is known as a power stroke.
A Wankel engine has a triangular rotor that orbits in an epitrochoidal (figure 8 shape) chamber around an eccentric shaft. The four phases of operation (intake, compression, power, exhaust) take place in separate locations, instead of one single location as in a reciprocating engine.
A Bourke Engine uses a pair of pistons integrated to a Scotch Yoke that transmits reciprocating force through a specially designed bearing assembly to turn a crank mechanism. Intake, compression, power, and exhaust occur in each stroke.

*[edit] Classification*

The fundamental difference between an engine and a motor is that a motor converts electricity into mechanical energy whereas an engine converts thermal energy into mechanical energy. At one time, the word "engine" (from Latin, via Old French, _ingenium_, "ability") meant any piece of machinery — a sense the persists in expressions such as _siege engine_. A "motor" (from Latin _motor_, "mover") is any machine that produces mechanical power. Traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as "engines," but combustion engines are often referred to as "motors." (An _electric engine_ refers to locomotive operated by electricity).
However, many people consider engines as those things which generate their power from within, and motors as requiring an outside source of energy to perform their work


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## حسن هادي (20 أغسطس 2007)

سنقوم بالاضافة ان شاء الله في المشاركات القادمة


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## حسن هادي (21 أغسطس 2007)

الاخوة الاعزاء نرفق لكم طيا في هذا الموضوع شيئا عن السيارات وتاريخها *اذ ان ماكينة الاحتراق الداخلي باوسع تطبيق عملي لها في مجال السيارات وليكون الموضوع اكثر شمولية ارتايت ان اضيف هذه المشاركات حول السيارات في هذا الموضوع* علما ان الروابط متداخلة في هذه المواضيع وكما اسلفنا بسبب المشتركات العلمية وتداخلها *
ارجو ان تكون سلسلة المواضيع مفيدة وتقبلوا تحياتي 
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*Automobile*

*From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia اجمل موسوعة تحياتي اخوكم حسن**


Jump to: navigation, search
_“Car” and “Cars” redirect here. For other uses, see Car (disambiguation)._


 


Karl Benz's "Velo" model (1894) - entered into the first automobile race


An *automobile* or *motor car* (usually shortened to just *car*) is a wheeled passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Most definitions of the term specify that automobiles are designed to run primarily on roads, to have seating for one to eight people, to typically have four wheels, and to be constructed principally for the transport of people rather than goods.[1] However, the term is far from precise.


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## حسن هادي (21 أغسطس 2007)

الاخوة الاعزاء نرفق لكم طيا في هذا الموضوع شيئا عن السيارات وتاريخها *اذ ان ماكينة الاحتراق الداخلي باوسع تطبيق عملي لها في مجال السيارات وليكون الموضوع اكثر شمولية ارتايت ان اضيف هذه المشاركات حول السيارات في هذا الموضوع* علما ان الروابط متداخلة في هذه المواضيع وكما اسلفنا بسبب المشتركات العلمية وتداخلها *
ارجو ان تكون سلسلة المواضيع مفيدة وتقبلوا تحياتي 
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لمحات تاريخية 

_Main article: History of the automobile_
Although Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile, this claim is disputed by some, who doubt Cugnot's three-wheeler ever ran, while others claim Ferdinand Verbiest, a member of a Jesuit mission in China, built the first steam powered car around 1672.[3][4] In either case François Isaac de Rivaz, a Swiss inventor, designed the first internal combustion engine which was fuelled by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen and used it to develop the world's first vehicle to run on such an engine. The design was not very successful, as was the case with Samuel Brown, Samuel Morey, and Etienne Lenoir who each produced vehicles powered by clumsy internal combustion engines.[5]
In November 1881 French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled automobile. This was at the International Exhibition of Electricity in Paris.[6]
An automobile powered by an Otto gasoline engine was built in Mannheim, Germany by Karl Benz in 1885 and granted a patent in January of the following year under the auspices of his major company, Benz & Cie. which was founded in 1883.
Although several other German engineers (including Gottlieb Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach, and Siegfried Marcus) were working on the problem at about the same time, Karl Benz is generally acknowledged as the inventor of the modern automobile.[5] In 1879 Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, designed in 1878. Many of his other inventions made the use of the internal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle and in 1896, Benz designed and patented the first internal combustion flat engine.
Approximately 25 Benz vehicles were built and sold before 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced. They were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added the Benz automobile to his line of products. Because France was more open to the early automobiles, more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany.
Daimler and Maybach founded Daimler Motoren Gescellschaft (Daimler Motor Company, DMG) in Cannstatt in 1890 and under the brand name, Daimler, sold their first automobile in 1892. By 1895 about 30 vehicles had been built by Daimler and Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after falling out with their backers. Benz and Daimler seem to have been unaware of each other's early work and worked independently.
Daimler died in 1900 and later that year, Maybach designed a model named _Daimler-Mercedes_, special-ordered by Emil Jellinek. Two years later, a new model DMG automobile was produced and named Mercedes after the engine. Maybach quit DMG shortly thereafter and opened a business of his own. Rights to the _Daimler_ brand name were sold to other manufacturers.
Karl Benz proposed co-operation between DMG and Benz & Cie. when economic conditions began to deteriorate in Germany following the First World War, but the directors of DMG refused to consider it initially. Negotiations between the two companies resumed several years later and in 1924 they signed an _Agreement of Mutual Interest_ valid until the year 2000. Both enterprises standardized design, production, purchasing, sales, and advertising—marketing their automobile models jointly—although keeping their respective brands. On June 28, 1926, Benz & Cie. and DMG finally merged as the _Daimler-Benz_ company, baptizing all of its automobiles _Mercedes Benz_ honoring the most important model of the DMG automobiles, the Maybach design later referred to as the _1902 Mercedes-35hp_, along with the Benz name. Karl Benz remained a member of the board of directors of Daimler-Benz until his death in 1929.
In 1890, Emile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines, and so laid the foundation of the motor industry in France. The first American car with a gasoline internal combustion engine supposedly was designed in 1877 by George Selden of Rochester, New York, who applied for a patent on an automobile in 1879. In Britain there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success with Thomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860.[7] Santler from Malvern is recognized by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made the first petrol-powered car in the country in 1894[8] followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895 but these were both one-offs.[8] The first production vehicles came from the Daimler Motor Company, founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896, and making their first cars in 1897.[8]
In 1892, German engineer Rudolf Diesel got a patent for a "New Rational Combustion Engine". In 1897 he built the first Diesel Engine.[5] In 1895, Selden was granted a United States patent(U.S. Patent 549,160 ) for a two-stroke automobile engine, which hindered more than encouraged development of autos in the United States. Steam, electric, and gasoline powered autos competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s.


 


Ransom E. Olds.


The large-scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by Ransom Olds at his Oldsmobile factory in 1902. This assembly line concept was then greatly expanded by Henry Ford in the 1910s. Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering, for the Cadillac Motor Company in 1910-1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes.
Although various pistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventional piston and crankshaft design, only Mazda's version of the Wankel engine has had more than very limited success.


 


Ford Model T, 1927, regarded as the first affordable automobile


Since the 1920s, nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs, so marketing plans have often heavily influenced automobile design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one company, so buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved. The makes shared parts with one another so larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1950s, Chevrolet shared hood, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac; the LaSalle of the 1930s, sold by Cadillac, used cheaper mechanical parts made by the Oldsmobile division.


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## حسن هادي (21 أغسطس 2007)

Cadillac, 1903 (Smithsonian)

سيارة كاديلاك 1903 
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Promotional art of the 1947 Cadillac Series 75 Sedan
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1948 Cadillac
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وهكذا اذا اعجبتكم الصور ورغبتم بالمزيد تابع المراحل التاريخية بنفسك عن طريق الروابط ولعدة انواع من السيارات //تحياتي اخوكم حسن*


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## حسن هادي (21 أغسطس 2007)

التصميم :6: 
Design
_Main article: Automotive design_


 


The 1955 Citroën DS; revolutionary visual design and technological innovation.


The design of modern cars is typically handled by a large team of designers and engineers from many different disciplines. As part of the product development effort the team of designers will work closely with teams of design engineers responsible for all aspects of the vehicle. These engineering teams include: chassis, body and trim, powertrain, electrical and production. The design team under the leadership of the design director will typically comprise of an exterior designer, an interior designer (usually referred to as stylists), and a color and materials designer. A few other designers will be involved in detail design of both exterior and interior. For example, a designer might be tasked with designing the rear light clusters or the steering wheel. The color and materials designer will work closely with the exterior and interior designers in developing exterior color paints, interior colors, fabrics, leathers, carpet, wood trim, and so on.
In 1924 the American national automobile market began reaching saturation. To maintain unit sales, General Motors instituted annual model-year design changes (also credited to Alfred Sloan) in order to convince car owners they needed a replacement each year. Since 1935 automotive form has been driven more by consumer expectations than engineering improvement.
There have been many efforts to innovate automobile design funded by the NHTSA, including the work of the NavLab group at Carnegie Mellon University.[9] Recent efforts include the highly publicized DARPA Grand Challenge race.[10]
Acceleration, braking, and measures of turning or agility vary widely between different makes and models of automobile. The automotive publication industry has developed around these performance measures as a way to quantify and qualify the characteristics of a particular vehicle. See quarter mile and 0 to 60 mph.


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## حسن هادي (21 أغسطس 2007)

الوقود:6: 
Fuel and propulsion technologies


 


The Henney Kilowatt, the first modern (transistor-controlled) electric car.




 


2007 Tesla Roadster


_See also: Alternative fuel vehicle_ Most automobiles in use today are propelled by gasoline (also known as petrol) or diesel internal combustion engines, which are known to cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing to climate change and global warming.[11] Increasing costs of oil-based fuels and tightening environmental law and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on alternative power systems for automobiles. Efforts to improve or replace these technologies include hybrid vehicles, electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles.

*[edit] Diesel*

Diesel engined cars have long been popular in Europe with the first models being introduced in the 1930s by Mercedes Benz and Citroen. The main benefit of Diesels are a 50% fuel burn efficiency compared with 27%[12] in the best gasoline engines. A down side of the diesel is the presence in the exhaust gases of fine soot particulates and manufacturers are now starting to fit filters to remove these. Many diesel powered cars can also run with little or no modifications on 100% biodiesel.

*[edit] Gasoline*

Gasoline engines have the advantage over diesel in being lighter and able to work at higher rotational speeds and they are the usual choice for fitting in high performance sports cars. Continuous development of gasoline engines for over a hundred years has produced improvements in efficiency and reduced pollution. The carburetor was used on nearly all road car engines until the 1980s but it was long realised better control of the fuel/air mixture could be achieved with fuel injection. Indirect fuel injection was first used in aircraft engines from 1909, in racing car engines from the 1930s, and road cars from the late 1950s.[12] Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) is now starting to appear in production vehicles such as the 2007 BMW MINI. Exhaust gases are also cleaned up by fitting a catalytic converter into the exhaust system. Clean air legislation in many of the car industries most important markets has made both catalysts and fuel injection virtually universal fittings. Most modern gasoline engines are also capable of running with up to 15% ethanol mixed into the gasoline - older vehicles may have seals and hoses that can be harmed by ethanol. With a small amount of redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85%. 100% ethanol is used in some parts of the world (such as Brazil), but vehicles must be started on pure gasoline and switched over to ethanol once the engine is running. Most gasoline engined cars can also run on LPG with the addition of an LPG tank for fuel storage and carburetion modifications to add an LPG mixer. LPG produces fewer toxic emissions and is a popular fuel for fork lift trucks that have to operate inside buildings.


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## حسن هادي (21 أغسطس 2007)

النظم الكهربائية وما يليها من مواد:6: 

Electric
The first electric cars were built in the early 1880s shortly before internal combustion powered cars appeared. For a period of time electrics were considered superior due to the silent nature of electric motors compared to the very loud noise of the gasoline engine. This supreme advantage was removed with Hiram Percy Maxim's invention of the muffler in 1897. Thereafter internal combustion powered cars had two critical advantages: 1) long range and 2) high specific energy (far lower weight of petrol fuel versus weight of batteries). The building of battery electric vehicles that could rival internal combustion models had to wait for the introduction of modern semiconductor controls and improved batteries. Because they can deliver a high torque at low revolutions electric cars do not require such a complex drive train and transmission as internal combustion powered cars. Some post-2000 electric car designs are able to accelerate from 0-60 mph (96 km/hour) in 4.0 seconds with a top speed around 130 mph (210 km/h). Others have a range of 250 miles (400 km) on the EPA highway cycle requiring 3-1/2 hours to completely charge. Equivalent fuel efficiency to internal combustion is not well defined but some press reports give it at around 135 mpg. Also, in 1996, there were a series of cars called EV1 manufatcured by General Motors, but ended in 1999.

*[edit] Steam*

Steam power, usually using an oil or gas heated boiler, was also in use until the 1930s but had the major disadvantage of being unable to power the car until boiler pressure was available. It has the advantage of being able to produce very low emissions as the combustion process can be carefully controlled. Its disadvantages include poor heat efficiency and extensive requirements for electric auxiliaries.[13]

*[edit] Gas turbine*

In the 1950s there was a brief interest in using gas turbine (jet) engines and several makers including Rover produced prototypes. In spite of the power units being very compact, high fuel consumption, severe delay in throttle response, and lack of engine braking meant no cars reached production.

*[edit] Rotary (Wankel) engines*

Rotary Wankel engines were introduced into road cars by NSU with the Ro 80 and later were seen in several Mazda models. In spite of their impressive smoothness, poor reliability and fuel economy led to them largely disappearing. Mazda, however, has continued research on these engines and overcame most of the earlier problems.

*[edit] Future developments*

Much current research and development is centered on hybrid vehicles that use both electric power and internal combustion. Research into alternative forms of power also focus on developing fuel cells, Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), stirling engines[14], and even using the stored energy of compressed air or liquid nitrogen.

*[edit] Safety*

_Main articles: Car safety and Automobile accident_


 


Result of a serious automobile accident.


Road traffic injuries represent about 25% of worldwide injury-related deaths (the leading cause) with an estimated 1.2 million deaths (2004) each year.[15]
Automobile accidents are almost as old as automobiles themselves. Early examples include Mary Ward, who became one of the first documented automobile fatalities in 1869 in Parsonstown, Ireland,[16] and Henry Bliss, one of the United State's first pedestrian automobile casualties in 1899 in New York.[17]
Cars have many basic safety problems - for example, they have human drivers who make mistakes, wheels that lose traction when the braking, turning or acceleration forces are too high. Some vehicles have a high center of gravity and therefore an increased tendency to roll over. When driven at high speeds, collisions can have very serious or fatal consequences.
Early safety research focused on increasing the reliability of brakes and reducing the flammability of fuel systems. For example, modern engine compartments are open at the bottom so that fuel vapors, which are heavier than air, vent to the open air. Brakes are hydraulic and dual circuit so that failures are slow leaks, rather than abrupt cable breaks. Systematic research on crash safety started[_citation needed_] in 1958 at Ford Motor Company. Since then, most research has focused on absorbing external crash energy with crushable panels and reducing the motion of human bodies in the passenger compartment. This is reflected in most cars produced today.


 


Airbags, a modern component of automobile safety


Significant reductions in death and injury have come from the addition of Safety belts and laws in many countries to require vehicle occupants to wear them. Airbags and specialised child restraint systems have improved on that. Structural changes such as side-impact protection bars in the doors and side panels of the car mitigate the effect of impacts to the side of the vehicle. Many cars now include radar or sonar detectors mounted to the rear of the car to warn the driver if he or she is about to reverse into an obstacle or a pedestrian. Some vehicle manufacturers are producing cars with devices that also measure the proximity to obstacles and other vehicles in front of the car and are using these to apply the brakes when a collision is inevitable. There have also been limited efforts to use heads up displays and thermal imaging technologies similar to those used in military aircraft to provide the driver with a better view of the road at night.
There are standard tests for safety in new automobiles, like the EuroNCAP and the US NCAP tests.[18] There are also tests run by organizations such as IIHS and backed by the insurance industry.[19]
Despite technological advances, there is still significant loss of life from car accidents: About 40,000 people die every year in the United States, with similar figures in European nations. This figure increases annually in step with rising population and increasing travel if no measures are taken, but the rate _per capita_ and _per_ mile traveled decreases steadily. The death toll is expected to nearly double worldwide by 2020. A much higher number of accidents result in injury or permanent disability. The highest accident figures are reported in China and India. The European Union has a rigid program to cut the death toll in half by 2010, and member states have started implementing measures.
Automated control has been seriously proposed and successfully prototyped. Shoulder-belted passengers could tolerate a 32 g emergency stop (reducing the safe inter-vehicle gap 64-fold) if high-speed roads incorporated a steel rail for emergency braking. Both safety modifications of the roadway are thought to be too expensive by most funding authorities, although these modifications could dramatically increase the number of vehicles able to safely use a high-speed highway. This makes clear the often-ignored fact road design and traffic control also play a part in car wrecks; unclear traffic signs, inadequate signal light placing, and poor planning (curved bridge approaches which become icy in winter, for example), also contribute


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## حسن هادي (21 أغسطس 2007)

Economics and Impacts :6: 




*The neutrality of this section is disputed.*
Please see the discussion on the talk page.


 


The hydrogen powered FCHV (Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle) was developed by Toyota in 2005



*[edit] Cost and benefits of ownership*

_Main article: Economics of automobile ownership_
The costs of automobile ownership, which may include the cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs, maintenance, fuel, depreciation, parking fees, tire replacement, taxes and insurance,[20] are weighed against the cost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits - perceived and real - of vehicle ownership. The benefits may include personal freedom, mobility, independence and convenience.[21]

*[edit] Cost and benefits to society*

_Main article: Effects of the automobile on societies_
Similarly the costs to society of encompassing automobile use, which may include those of: maintaining roads, pollution, public health, health care, and of disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life, can be balanced against the value of the benefits to society that automobile use generates. The societal benefits may include: economy benefits, such as job and wealth creation, of automobile production and maintenance, transportation provision, society wellbeing derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from the tax opportunities. The ability for humans to move rapidly from place to place has far reaching implications for the nature of our society. People can now live far from their workplaces, the design of cities can be determined as much by the need to get vehicles into and out of the city as the nature of the buildings and public spaces within the city.[22]

*[edit] Impacts on society*



The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a *worldwide view* of the subject.
Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.
Transportation is a major contributor to air pollution in most industrialised nations. According to the American Surface Transportation Policy Project nearly half of all Americans are breathing unhealthy air. Their study showed air quality in dozens of metropolitan areas has got worse over the last decade.[23] In the United States the average passenger car emits 11,450 lbs (5 tonnes) of carbon dioxide, along with smaller amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen.[24] Residents of low-density, residential-only sprawling communities are also more likely to die in car collisions, which kill 1.2 million people worldwide each year, and injure about forty times this number.[25] Sprawl is more broadly a factor in inactivity and obesity, which in turn can lead to increased risk of a variety of diseases.[26]

*[edit] Improving the positive and reducing the negative impacts*

Fuel taxes may act as an incentive for the production of more efficient, hence less polluting, car designs (e.g. hybrid vehicles) and the development of alternative fuels. High fuel taxes may provide a strong incentive for consumers to purchase lighter, smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, or to not drive. On average, today's automobiles are about 75 percent recyclable, and using recycled steel helps reduce energy use and pollution.[27] In the United States Congress, federally mandated fuel efficiency standards have been debated regularly, passenger car standards have not risen above the 27.5 miles per gallon standard set in 1985. Light truck standards have changed more frequently, and were set at 22.2 miles per gallon in 2007.[28] Alternative fuel vehicles are another option that is less polluting than conventional petroleum powered vehicles.

*[edit] Future car technologies*

_Main article: Future car technologies_
Automobile propulsion technologies under development include hybrid cars, battery electric vehicles, hydrogen cars, and various alternative fuels. New materials which may replace steel car bodies include duraluminum, fiberglass, carbon fiber, and carbon nanotubes.

*[edit] Alternatives to the automobile*

_Main article: Alternatives to the automobile_
Established alternatives for some aspects of automobile use include public transit (buses, trolleybuses, trains, subways, monorails, tramways), cycling, walking, rollerblading and skateboarding. Car-share arrangements are also increasingly popular – the U.S. market leader has experienced double-digit growth in revenue and membership growth between 2006 and 2007, offering a service that enables urban residents to "share" a vehicle rather than own a car in already congested neighborhoods.[29] Bike-share systems have been tried in some European cities, including Copenhagen and Amsterdam. Similar programs have been experimented with in a number of U.S. Cities.[30] Additional individual modes of transport, such as personal rapid transit could serve as an alternative to automobiles if they prove to be socially accepted.[31]


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## سنان عبد الغفار (21 أغسطس 2007)

شكراً بعدد الحصى وقطر المطر وبعدد من حج وأعتمر شكراً ايها المبدع الرائع شكراً:77: على مجهودك المتميز
انا متابع لمواضيعك أول بأول


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## حسن هادي (21 أغسطس 2007)

سنان عبد الغفار قال:


> شكراً بعدد الحصى وقطر المطر وبعدد من حج وأعتمر شكراً ايها المبدع الرائع شكراً:77: على مجهودك المتميز
> انا متابع لمواضيعك أول بأول


حياك الله والف حياك يا اخي العزيز يا مهندس سنان ووفقنا الله جميعا وتقبل مني كل الود والتقدير والاحترام*اخوك حسن العراقي


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## هندسة الجادرية (8 نوفمبر 2007)

شكرااااااااا جزيلاااااااا


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## ayman hegazy (4 مايو 2010)

thank you very much


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## محمد عميرة (4 مايو 2010)

thanks for all


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## vicehanna (23 يونيو 2014)

thanks


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## vicehanna (23 يونيو 2014)

thanks​


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