# اريد كتب عن surface hardening



## tifaonline (7 ديسمبر 2007)

لو سمحتم
اريد كتب عن
surface hardening
من فضلكم


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## alshangiti (10 ديسمبر 2007)

what you mean by surface hardening


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## tifaonline (11 ديسمبر 2007)

carburizing-nitriding-cyaniding-etc


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## alshangiti (12 ديسمبر 2007)

Cyaniding 

This case hardening process heats ferrous materials above the transformation temperature in a molten salt bath containing cyanide. The absorption of both carbon and nitrogen at the surface also produces a gradient in from the surface. Subsequent cooling is specified to produce the required hard, wear-resistant properties. This method is being replaced by carbonitriding because 
(1) disposal of cyanide salts is difficult, and 
(2) it is difficult to remove residual salts from cyanide-hardened workpieces, especially those of intricate design
http://tristate.apogee.net/et/ehetcyn.asp


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## alshangiti (12 ديسمبر 2007)

Carburizing is the addition of carbon to the surface of low-carbon steels at temperatures generally between 850 and 950°C (1560 and 1740°F), at which austenite, with its high solubility for carbon, is the stable crystal structure. Hardening is accomplished when the high-carbon surface layer is quenched to form martensite so that a high-carbon martensitic case with good wear and fatigue resistance is superimposed on a tough, low-carbon steel core. 
Case hardness of carburized steels is primarily a function of carbon *******. When the carbon ******* of the steel exceeds about 0.50% additional carbon has no effect on hardness but does enhance hardenability. Carbon in excess of 0.50% may not be dissolved, which would thus require temperatures high enough to ensure carbon-austenite solid solution. 
Case depth of carburized steel is a function of carburizing time and the available carbon potential at the surface. When prolonged carburizing times are used for deep case depths, a high carbon potential produces a high surface-carbon *******, which may thus result in excessive retained austenite or free carbides. These two microstructural elements both have adverse effects on the distribution of residual stress in the case-hardened part. Consequently, a high carbon potential may be suitable for short carburizing times but not for prolonged carburizing. 
*Carburizing steels for case hardening* usually have base-carbon *******s of about 0.2%, with the carbon ******* of the carburized layer generally being controlled at between 0.8 and 1% *C*. However, surface carbon is often limited to 0.9% because too high a carbon ******* can result in retained austenite and brittle martensite. 
Most steels that are carburized are killed steels (deoxidized by the addition of aluminum), which maintain fine grain sizes to temperatures of about 1040°C. Steels made to coarse grain practices can be carburized if a double quench provides grain refinement. Double quenching usually consists of a direct quench and then a requench from a lower temperature. 
Many alloy steels for case hardening are now specified on the basis of core hardenability. Although the same considerations generally apply to the selection of uncarburized grades, there are some peculiarities in carburizing applications. 
First, in a case-hardened steel, the hardenability of both case and core must be considered. Because of the difference in carbon *******, case and core have quite different hardenabilities, and this difference is much greater for some steels than for others. 
Moreover, the two regions have different in-service functions to perform. Until the introduction of lean alloy steels such as the 86xx series, with and without boron, there was little need to be concerned about case hardenability because the alloy ******* combined with the high carbon ******* always provided adequate hardenability. This is still generally true when the steels are direct quenched from carburizing, so that the carbon and alloying elements are in solution in the case austenite. In parts that are reheated for hardening and in heavy-sectioned parts, however, both case and core hardenability requirements should be carefully evaluated. 
The relationship between the thermal gradient and the carbon gradient during quenching of a carburized part can make a measurable difference in the case depth as measured by hardness. That is, an increase in base hardenability can produce a higher proportion of martensite for a given carbon level, yielding an increased measured case depth. Therefore, a shallower carbon profile and shorter carburizing time could be used to attain the desired result in a properly chosen steel. 
*Core Hardness.* A common mistake is to specify too narrow a range of core hardness. When the final quench is from a temperature high enough to allow the development of full core hardness, the hardness variation at any location will be that of the hardenability band of the steel at the corresponding position on the end-quenched hardenability specimen. 
In standard steels purchased to chemical composition requirements rather than to hardenability, the range can be 20 or more HRC points; for example, 8620 may vary from 20 to 45 HRC at the 4/16 in.(6.35mm) position. The 25-point range emphasizes the advantage of purchasing to hardenability specifications to avoid the intolerable variation possible within the ranges for standard chemistry steels. Another way to control core hardness within narrow limits without resorting to the use of high-alloy steels is to use a final quench from a lower temperature so that full hardness in the case will be developed without the disadvantage of excessive core hardness. 
Gears are almost always oil quenched because distortion must be held to the lowest possible level. Therefore, alloy steels are usually selected, with much debate about which particular alloy. The lower-alloy steels such as 4023, 5120, 4118, 8620, and 4620, with a carbon range between 0.15 and 0.25%, are widely used and generally satisfactory. Usually, the first choice is one of the last two steels mentioned, either of which should be safe for all ordinary applications. The final choice, based on service experience or dynamometer testing, should be the least expensive steel that will do the job. For heavy-duty applications, higher-alloy grades such as 4320, 4817, and 9310 are justifiable if based on actual performance tests. The life testing of gears in the same mountings used in service to prove both the design and the steel selection is particularly important. 
In other applications, when distortion is not a major factor, the carbon steels described above, water quenched, can be used up to a 50 mm (2 in.) diameter. In larger sizes, low-alloy steels, water quenched, such as 5120, 4023, and 6120 can be used, but possible distortion and quench cracking must be avoided. 
*Carburizing Methods.* While the basic principle of carburizing has remained unchanged since carburizing was first employed, the method used to introduce the carbon into the steel has been a matter of continuous evolution. 
In its earliest application, parts were simply placed in a suitable container and covered with a thick layer of carbon powder (pack carburizing). Although effective in introducing carbon, this method was exceedingly slow, and as the demand for greater production grew, a new process using a gaseous atmosphere was developed. 
In gas carburizing, the parts are surrounded by a carbon-bearing atmosphere that can be continuously replenished so that a high carbon potential can be maintained. While the rate of carburizing is substantially increased in the gaseous atmosphere, the method requires the use of a multicomponent atmosphere whose composition must be very closely controlled to avoid deleterious side effects, for example, surface and grain-boundary oxides. In addition, a separate piece of equipment is required to generate the atmosphere and control its composition. Despite this increased complexity, gas carburizing has become the most effective and widely used method for carburizing steel parts in large quantities. 
In efforts required to simplify the atmosphere, carburizing in an oxygen-free environment at very low pressure (vacuum carburizing) has been explored and developed into a viable and important alternative. Although the furnace enclosure in some respects becomes more complex, the atmosphere is greatly simplified. A single-component atmosphere consisting solely of a simple gaseous hydrocarbon, for example methane, may be used. Furthermore, because the parts are heated in an oxygen-free environment, the carburizing temperature may be increased substantially without the risk of surface or grain-boundary oxidation. The higher temperature permitted increases not only the solid solubility of carbon in the austenite but also its rate of diffusion, so that the time required to achieve the case depth desired is reduced. 
Although vacuum carburizing overcomes some of the complexities of gas carbunzing, it introduces a serious new problem that must be addressed. Because vacuum carburizing is conducted at very low pressures, and the rate of flow of the carburizing gas into the furnace is very low, the carbon potential of the gas in deep recesses and blind holes is quickly depleted. Unless this gas is replenished, a great nonuniformity in case depth over the surface of the part is likely to occur. If, in an effort to overcome this problem, the gas pressure is increased significantly, another problem arises, that of free-carbon formation, or sooting. 
Thus, in order to obtain cases of reasonably uniform depth over a part of complex shape, the gas pressure must be increased periodically to replenish the depleted atmosphere in recesses and then reduced again to the operating pressure. Clearly, a delicate balance exists in vacuum carburizing: The process conditions must be adjusted to obtain the best compromise between case uniformity, risk of sooting, and carburizing rate. 
A method that overcomes both of these major problems, yet retains the desirable features of a simple atmosphere and permissible operating temperature is plasma or ion carburizing. 
To summarize, carburizing methods include: 
Gas carburizing
Vacuum carburizing
Plasma carburizing
Salt bath carburizing
Pack carburizing
These methods introduce carbon by the use of gas (atmospheric-gas, plasma, and vacuum carburizing), liquids (salt bath carburizing), or solid compounds (pack carburizing). All of these methods have limitations and advantages, but gas carburizing is used most often for large-scale production because it can be accurately controlled and involves a minimum of special handling. 

Vacuum carbunzing and plasma carburizing have found applications because of the absence of oxygen in the furnace atmosphere. Salt bath and pack carburizing arc still done occasionally, but have little commercial importance today. 
*Process characteristics* of the above-mentioned carburizing methods fall into two general groups: 
Conventional methods, which introduce carbon by gas atmospheres, salt baths or charcoal packs
Plasma methods, which impinge positive carbon ions on the surface of a steel part (the cathode)
The main difference between conventional and plasma methods is the reduced carburizing times achieved in plasma-assisted methods. The quickly attained surface saturation also results in faster diffusion kinetics. Furthermore, plasma carburizing produces very uniform case depths, even in parts with irregular surfaces. 

With the conventional methods, carburization always takes place by means of a gaseous phase of carbon monoxide; however, each method also involves different reaction and surface kinetics, producing different case-hardening results. 
In general, with conventional methods, carbon monoxide breaks down at the steel surface: 
2CO ↔ CO2 + C 
The liberated carbon is readily dissolved by the austenite phase and diffuses into the body of the steel. For some process methods (gas and pack carburizing), the carbon dioxide produced may react with the carbon atmosphere or pack charcoal to produce new carbon monoxide by the reverse reaction. 
Carburizing is most frequently performed between 850 and 950°C (1550 and 1750°F), but sometimes higher temperatures are used to reduce cycle times and/or produce deeper depths of the high-carbon surface layer. 
A comprehensive model of gas carburization must include algorithms that describe: 
Carbon diffusion
Kinetics of the surface reaction
Kinetics of the reaction between endogas and enriching gas
Purging (for batch processes)
The atmosphere control system.


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## alshangiti (12 ديسمبر 2007)

Nitriding is a surface-hardening heat treatment that introduces nitrogen into the surface of steel at a temperature range (500 to 550°C, or 930 to 1020°F), while it is in the ferrite condition. Thus, nitriding is similar to carburizing in that surface composition is altered, but different in that nitrogen is added into ferrite instead of austenite. Because nitriding does not involve heating into the austenite phase field and a subsequent quench to form martensite, nitriding can be accomplished with a minimum of distortion and with excellent dimensional control. 
The mechanism of nitriding is generally known, but the specific reactions that occur in different steels and with different nitriding media are not always known. Nitrogen has partial solubility in iron. It can form a solid solution with ferrite at nitrogen *******s up to about 6%. At about 6% *N*, a compound called gamma prime (γ’), with a composition of Fe4N is formed. 
At nitrogen *******s greater than 8%, the equilibrium reaction product is ε compound, Fe3N. Nitrided cases are stratified. The outermost surface can be all γ’ and if this is the case, it is referred to as the white layer. Such a surface layer is undesirable: it is very hard profiles but is so brittle that it may spall in use. Usually it is removed; special nitriding processes are used to reduce this layer or make it less brittle. The ε zone of the case is hardened by the formation of the Fe3N compound, and below this layer there is some solid solution strengthening from the nitrogen in solid solution. 
Principal reasons for nitriding are: 
To obtain high surface hardness
To increase wear resistance
To improve fatigue life
To improve corrosion resistance (except for stainless steels)
To obtain a surface that is resistant to the softening effect of heat at temperatures up to the nitriding temperature
*Nitridable Steels*

Nitrided steels are generally medium-carbon (quenched and tempered) steels that contain strong nitride-forming elements such as aluminum, chromium, vanadium, and molybdenum. 

The most significant hardening is achieved with a class of alloy steels (nitralloy type) that contain about 1% *Al*. When these steels are nitrided the aluminum forms AlN particles, which strain the ferrite lattice and create strengthening dislocations. Titanium and chromium are also used to enhance case hardness although case depth decreases as alloy ******* increases. 
Of the alloying elements commonly used in commercial steels, aluminum, chromium, vanadium, tungsten and molybdenum are beneficial in nitriding because they form nitrides that are stable at nitriding temperatures. Molybdenum in addition to its contribution as a nitride former also reduces the risk of embrittlement at nitriding temperatures. Other alloying elements such as nickel, copper, silicon and manganese have little, if any, effect on nitriding characteristics. 
Although at suitable temperatures all steels are capable of forming iron nitrides in the presence of nascent nitrogen, the nitriding results are more favorable in those steels that contain one or more of the major nitride-forming alloying elements. Because aluminum is the strongest nitride former of the common alloying elements, aluminum containing steels (0.85 to 1.50% *Al*) yield the best nitriding results in terms of total alloy *******. 
The following steels can be gas nitrided for specific applications: 
Aluminum-containing low-alloy steels
Medium-carbon, chromium-containing low-alloy steels of the 4100, 4300, 5100, 6100, 8600, 8700 and 9800 series
Hot-work die steels containing 5% chromium such as HI1, HI2, and HI3
Low-carbon, chromium-containing low-alloy steels of the 3300, 8600, and 9300 series
Air-hardening tool steels such as A-2, A-6, D-2, D-3 and S-7
High-speed tool steels such as M-2 and M-4
Nitronic stainless steels such as 30, 40, 50, and 60
Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels of the 400 and 500 series
Austenitic stainless steels of the 200 and 300 series
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels such as 13-8 PH, 15-5 PH, 17-4 PH, 17-7 PH, A-286, AM350 and AM355.
*Nitriding processes*

Process methods for nitriding include: 

gas (box furnace or fluidized bed),
liquid (salt bath),
plasma (ion) nitriding.
The advantages and disadvantages of these techniques are similar to those of carburizing. However, times for gas nitriding can be quire long, that is, from 10 to 130 h depending on the application, and the case depths are relatively shallow, usually less than 0.5 mm. Plasma nitriding allows faster nitriding times, and the quickly attained surface saturation of the plasma process results in faster diffusion. Plasma nitriding can also clean the surface by sputtering. 

*Gas Nitriding*

Gas nitriding is a case-hardening process whereby nitrogen is introduced into the surface of a solid ferrous alloy by holding the metal at a suitable temperature in contact with a nitrogenous gas, usually ammonia. Quenching is not required for the production of a hard case. The nitriding temperature for all steels is between 495 and 565°C. 

Because of the absence of a quenching requirement with attendant volume changes, and the comparatively low temperatures employed in this process, nitriding of steels produces less distortion and deformation than either carburizing or conventional hardening. Some growth occurs as a result of nitriding but volumetric changes are relatively small. 
*Prior Heat Treatment.* All hardenable steels must be hardened and tempered before being nitrided. The tempering temperature must be high enough to guarantee structural stability at the nitriding temperature: the minimum tempering temperature is usually at least 30°C (50°F) higher than the maximum temperature to be used in nitriding. 
*Single-Stage and Double-Stage Nitriding.* Either a single- or a double-stage process may be employed when nitriding with anhydrous ammonia. In the single-stage process, a temperature in the range of about 495 to 525°C is used and the dissociation rate ranges from 15 to 30%. This process produces a brittle nitrogen-rich layer known as the white nitride layer at the surface of the nitrided case. 
The double-stage process, known also as the Floe process, has the advantage of reducing the thickness of the white nitrided layer. 
The first stage of the double-stage process is, except for time, a duplication of the single-stage process. The second stage may proceed at the nitriding temperature employed for the first stage or the temperature may be increased to from 550 to 565°C; however, at either temperature, the rate of dissociation in the second stage is increased to 65 to 80% (preferably 75 to 80%). Generally, an external ammonia dissociator is necessary for obtaining the required higher second-stage dissociation. 
The principal purpose of double-stage nitriding is to reduce the depth of the white layer produced on the surface of the case. Except for a reduction in the amount of ammonia consumed per hour, there is no advantage in using the double-stage process unless the amount of white layer produced in single-stage nitriding cannot be tolerated on the finished part or unless the amount of finishing required after nitriding is substantially reduced. 
To summarize, the use of a higher temperature during the second stage: 
Lowers the case hardness
Increases the case depth
May lower the core hardness depending on the prior tempering temperature and the total nitriding cycle time
May lower the apparent effective case depth because of the loss of core hardness depending on how effective case depth is defined.
*Operating Procedures.* After hardening and tempering and before nitriding, parts should be thoroughly cleaned. Most parts can be successfully nitrided immediately after vapor degreasing. 

*Bright Nitriding*

Bright nitriding is a modified form of gas nitriding employing ammonia and hydrogen gases. Atmosphere gas is continually withdrawn from the nitriding furnace and passed through a temperature-controlled scrubber containing a water solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Trace amounts of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) formed in the nitriding furnaces are removed in the scrubber thus improving the rate of nitriding. 

The scrubber also establishes a predetermined moisture ******* in the nitriding atmosphere reducing the rate of cyanide formation and inhibiting the cracking of ammonia to molecular nitrogen and hydrogen. By this technique control over the nitrogen activity of the furnace atmosphere is enhanced and nitrided parts can be produced with little or no white layer at the surface. If present, the white layer will be composed of only the more ductile Fe4N (gamma prime) phase. 
*Pack Nitriding*

Pack nitriding is a process analogous to pack carburizing. It employs certain nitrogen-bearing organic compounds as a source of nitrogen. Upon heating, the compounds used in the process form reaction products that are relatively stable at temperatures up to 570°C. 

Slow decomposition of the reaction products at the nitriding temperature provides a source of nitrogen. Nitriding times of 2 to 16 h can be employed. Pans are packed in glass ceramic or aluminum containers with the nitriding compound, which is often dispersed in an inert packing media. 
*Ion (or Plasma) Nitriding*

Since the mid-1960s, nitriding equipment utilizing the glow-discharge phenomenon has been commercially available. Initially termed glow-discharge nitriding, the process is now generally known as ion, or plasma, nitriding. The term plasma nitriding is gaining acceptance. 

Ion nitriding is an extension of conventional nitriding processes using plasma-discharge physics. In vacuum, high-voltage electrical energy is used to form a plasma, through which nitrogen ions are accelerated to impinge on the workpiece. This ion bombardment heats the workpiece, cleans the surface, and provides active nitrogen. 
Metallurgically versatile, the process provides excellent dimensional control and retention of surface finish. Ion nitriding can be conducted at temperatures lower than those conventionally employed. Control of white-layer composition and thickness enhances fatigue properties. The span of ion-nitriding applications includes conventional ammonia- gas nitriding, short-cycle nitriding in salt bath or gas, and the nitriding of stainless steels. 
Ion nitriding lends itself to total process automation, ensuring repetitive metallurgical results. The absence of pollution and insignificant gas consumption are important economic and public policy factors. Moreover, selective nitriding accomplished by simple masking techniques may yield significant economies. 
*Comparison of Ion Nitriding and Ammonia-Gas Nitriding*

Ammonia-gas nitriding produces a compound zone that is a mixture of both epsilon and gamma-prime structures. High internal stresses result from differences in volume growth associated with the formation of each phase. The interfaces between the two crystal structures are weak. Thicker compound zones, formed by ammonia-gas nitriding, limit accommodation of the internal stresses resulting from the mixed structure. 

Under cyclic loading, cracks in the compound zone can serve as initiation points for the propagation of fatigue cracks. The single-phase gamma-prime compound zone, which is thin and more ductile, exhibits superior fatigue properties. Reducing the thickness of the ion-nitrided compound zone further improves fatigue performance. Maximization occurs at the limiting condition, where compound zone depth equals zero. 
*Case Hardness.* The bulk of the thickness of the nitride case is the diffusion zone where fine iron/alloy nitride precipitates impart increased hardness and strength. Compressive stresses are also developed, as in other nitriding processes. Hardness profiles resulting from ion nitriding are similar to ammonia-gas nitriding but near-surface hardness may be greater with ion nitriding, a result of lower processing temperature. 
*Advantages and Disadvantages of Ion Nitriding.* Ion nitriding achieves repetitive metallurgical results and complete control of the nitrided layers. This control results in superior fatigue performance, wear resistance, and hard layer ductility. Moreover, the process ensures high dimensional stability, eliminates secondary operations, offers low operating-temperature capability and produces parts that retain surface finish. 
Among operating benefits are: 
Total absence of pollution
Efficient use of gas and electrical energy
Total process automation
Selective nitriding by simple masking techniques
Process span that encompasses all sub-critical nitriding
Reduced nitriding time
The limitations of ion nitriding include high capital cost, need for precision fixturing with electrical connections, long processing times compared to other short-cycle nitrocarburizing processes, and lack of feasibility of liquid quenching for carbon steels


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## alshangiti (12 ديسمبر 2007)

http://www.key-to-steel.com

The world most comperhensive steel database


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## ahmadhbd (1 مارس 2008)

شكرا لك يا أخي الشنقيطي


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## شضسصيث (4 مايو 2010)

بصراحة موضوع التقسية السطحية رائع جدا لكن اتمنى ممن تتوفر لديهم عناوين كتب تزويدنا بها


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## tifaonline (4 مايو 2010)

many many thanks


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