# :: المشروع الأفضل :: تحـــدي الهندسة



## -أصيل- (13 يونيو 2007)

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم 

اعضاء ملتقى المهندسين العرب المحترمين
السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته
يسرني و انا العضو الجديد في هذا المنتدى الطيب اهله 
ان يطيب لي المقام و البحث في هذا المنتدى الرائع ..
الكتب الهندسية في العالم العربي اما سعرها خيالي بالنسبة للطالب 
او عدم توفرها في السوق .. :4:
وكما تعلمون جمعيا ان الهندسة هي من ارقى العلوم البشرية 
لذلك تتطلب جهد و وقت اضافي عن غيرها من العلوم البشرية ..
لذلك اخواني المهندسين والطلبة : اقف بين يديكم احتراماَ 
عندي مشروع و هو عبارة عن اي دائرة الكترونية يوجد بها 
[FONT=&quot]*الترانزستور*
*و تكون للمستوى المتبدئ اي مشروع ترى انه الافضل ..
لاخوانك الطلاب والاسهل ..
الرجاء اخواني الافاضل : المساعدة كلاً بما يستطيع ..
الافضل ان تكون الدائرة رسماً و شرحاً ..موجودة ..
هذا و بارك الله في الجميع ..
محبكم في الله : مشروع هندسة 
*[/FONT]​


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## -أصيل- (13 يونيو 2007)

و اخص بالذكر الأخ القدير الحبيب : المهندس الحربي ..
و جميع المبدعين ..
و ذلك في أسرع وقت ..
و أكون لكم من الشاكرين ..
مشروع هندسة ​


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## -أصيل- (14 يونيو 2007)

ما ردكم اخواني الكرام ..
انا اعرف ان البعض يقول لماذا لا تبحث في المنتدى والانترنت!!!
اقول لكم أخواني بحثت هنا وهناك ..
لكن لم استطع ان اوفق في مشروع واحد ..
فبارك الله فيكم


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## مصطفي هيرو (14 يونيو 2007)

Home | Map | Projects | Construction | Soldering | Study | Components | 555 | Symbols | FAQ | Links 





*Transistor Circuits*

This page explains the operation of transistors in circuits. Practical matters such as testing, precautions when soldering and identifying leads are covered by the Transistors page. 

General: Types | Currents | Functional model | Darlington pair 
Switching: Introduction | Use relay? | Chip output | for NPN | and PNP | Sensors | Inverter 
Next Page: Analogue and Digital Systems 
Also See: Transistors (soldering, lead identification) 

*Types of transistor*




Transistor circuit symbolsThere are two types of standard transistors, *NPN* and *PNP*, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. This page is mostly about NPN transistors and if you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use these first. 

The leads are labelled *base* (B), *collector* (C) and *emitter* (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels! 
A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain. 
In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are *field-effect transistors* which are usually referred to as *FET*s. They have different circuit symbols and properties and they are not (yet) covered by this page. 
*Transistor currents*




The diagram shows the two current paths through a transistor. You can build this circuit with two standard 5mm red LEDs and any general purpose low power NPN transistor (BC108, BC182 or BC548 for example). 

The small *base current* controls the larger *collector current*. 
*When the switch is closed* a small current flows into the base (B) of the transistor. It is just enough to make LED B glow dimly. The transistor amplifies this small current to allow a larger current to flow through from its collector (C) to its emitter (E). This collector current is large enough to make LED C light brightly. 
*When the switch is open* no base current flows, so the transistor switches off the collector current. Both LEDs are off. 
A transistor amplifies current and can be used as a switch. 
This arrangement where the emitter (E) is in the controlling circuit (base current) and in the controlled circuit (collector current) is called *common emitter mode*. It is the most widely used arrangement for transistors so it is the one to learn first. 
*Functional model of an NPN transistor*




The operation of a transistor is difficult to explain and understand in terms of its internal structure. It is more helpful to use this functional model: 

The base-emitter junction behaves like a diode.
A base current IB flows only when the voltage VBE across the base-emitter junction is 0.7V or more.
The small base current IB controls the large collector current Ic.
Ic = hFE × IB (unless the transistor is full on and saturated) 
hFE is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain), a typical value for hFE is 100 (it has no units because it is a ratio)
The collector-emitter resistance RCE is controlled by the base current IB:
IB = 0 RCE = infinity transistor off
IB small RCE reduced transistor partly on
IB increased RCE = 0 transistor full on ('saturated')

Additional notes: 

A resistor is often needed in series with the base connection to limit the base current IB and prevent the transistor being damaged.
Transistors have a maximum collector current Ic rating.
The *current gain hFE can vary widely*, even for transistors of the same type!
A transistor that is *full on* (with RCE = 0) is said to be '*saturated*'.
When a transistor is saturated the collector-emitter voltage VCE is reduced to almost 0V.
When a transistor is saturated the collector current Ic is determined by the supply voltage and the external resistance in the collector circuit, not by the transistor's current gain. As a result the ratio Ic/IB for a saturated transistor is less than the current gain hFE.
The emitter current IE = Ic + IB, but Ic is much larger than IB, so roughly IE = Ic.
There is a table showing technical data for some popular transistors on the transistors page. 







Touch switch circuit
*Darlington pair*

This is two transistors connected together so that the current amplified by the first is amplified further by the second transistor. The overall current gain is equal to the two individual gains multiplied together: 

*Darlington pair current gain, hFE = hFE1 × hFE2* 
(hFE1 and hFE2 are the gains of the individual transistors) 
This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain, such as 10000, so that only a tiny base current is required to make the pair switch on. 
*A Darlington pair behaves like a single transistor with a very high current gain.* It has three leads (*B*, *C* and *E*) which are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual transistor. To turn on there must be 0.7V across both the base-emitter junctions which are connected in series inside the Darlington pair, therefore it requires 1.4V to turn on. 
Darlington pairs are available as complete packages but you can make up your own from two transistors; TR1 can be a low power type, but normally TR2 will need to be high power. The maximum collector current Ic(max) for the pair is the same as Ic(max) for TR2. 
A Darlington pair is sufficiently sensitive to respond to the small current passed by your skin and it can be used to make a *touch-switch* as shown in the diagram. For this circuit which just lights an LED the two transistors can be any general purpose low power transistors. The 100k



resistor protects the transistors if the contacts are linked with a piece of wire. 
*Using a transistor as a switch*




When a transistor is used as a switch it must be either *OFF* or *fully ON*. In the fully ON state the voltage VCE across the transistor is almost zero and the transistor is said to be *saturated* because it cannot pass any more collector current Ic. The output device switched by the transistor is usually called the 'load'. 

The power developed in a switching transistor is very small: 
In the *OFF* state: power = Ic × VCE, but Ic = 0, so the power is zero.
In the *full ON* state: power = Ic × VCE, but VCE = 0 (almost), so the power is very small.
This means that the transistor should not become hot in use and you do not need to consider its maximum power rating. The important ratings in switching circuits are the *maximum collector current Ic(max)* and the *minimum current gain hFE(min)*. The transistor's voltage ratings may be ignored unless you are using a supply voltage of more than about 15V. There is a table showing technical data for some popular transistors on the transistors page. 

For information about the operation of a transistor please see the functional model above. 




*Protection diode*

If the load is a *motor*, *relay* or *solenoid* (or any other device with a coil) a diode must be connected across the load to protect the transistor (and chip) from damage when the load is switched off. The diagram shows how this is connected 'backwards' so that it will normally NOT conduct. Conduction only occurs when the load is switched off, at this moment current tries to continue flowing through the coil and it is harmlessly diverted through the diode. Without the diode no current could flow and the coil would produce a damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep the current flowing. 


*When to use a relay*









Relays Photographs © Rapid Electronics 
Transistors cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as mains electricity) and they are not usually a good choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be needed, but note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil! 

*Advantages of relays:* 
Relays can switch *AC and DC*, transistors can only switch DC.
Relays can switch *high voltages*, transistors cannot.
Relays are a better choice for switching *large currents* (> 5A).
Relays can switch *many contacts* at once.
*Disadvantages of relays:* 

Relays are *bulkier* than transistors for switching small currents.
Relays *cannot switch rapidly*, transistors can switch many times per second.
Relays *use more power* due to the current flowing through their coil.
Relays *require more current than many chips can provide*, so a low power transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

*Connecting a transistor to the output from a chip*

Most chips cannot supply large output currents so it may be necessary to use a transistor to switch the larger current required for output devices such as lamps, motors and relays. The 555 timer chip is unusual because it can supply a relatively large current of up to 200mA which is sufficient for some output devices such as low current lamps, buzzers and many relay coils without needing to use a transistor. 

A transistor can also be used to enable a chip connected to a low voltage supply (such as 5V) to switch the current for an output device with a separate higher voltage supply (such as 12V). The two power supplies must be linked, normally this is done by linking their 0V connections. In this case you should use an NPN transistor. 
A resistor RB is required to limit the current flowing into the base of the transistor and prevent it being damaged. However, RB must be sufficiently low to ensure that the transistor is thoroughly saturated to prevent it overheating, this is particularly important if the transistor is switching a large current (> 100mA). A safe rule is to make the base current IB about five times larger than the value which should just saturate the transistor. 
*Choosing a suitable NPN transistor*

The circuit diagram shows how to connect an *NPN transistor*, this will switch on the load when the chip output is *high*. If you need the opposite action, with the load switched on when the chip output is *low* (0V) please see the circuit for a PNP transistor below. 

The procedure below explains how to choose a suitable switching transistor.



NPN transistor switch
(load is on when chip output is high) 
*Using units in calculations*
Remember to use V, A and



or
V, mA and k



. For more details
please see the Ohm's Law page.

The transistor's maximum collector current Ic(max) must be greater than the load current Ic. load current Ic = supply voltage Vsload resistance RL
The transistor's minimum current gain hFE(min) must be at least *five* times the load current Ic divided by the maximum output current from the chip. hFE(min) > 5 ×  load current Ic max. chip current
Choose a transistor which meets these requirements and make a note of its properties: Ic(max) and hFE(min). 
There is a table showing technical data for some popular transistors on the transistors page. 
Calculate an approximate value for the base resistor: RB = Vc × hFE where Vc = chip supply voltage 
(in a simple circuit with one supply this is Vs)5 × Ic
For a simple circuit where the chip and the load share the same power supply (Vc = Vs) you may prefer to use: RB = 0.2 × RL × hFE 
Then choose the nearest standard value for the base resistor. 
Finally, remember that if the load is a motor or relay coil a protection diode is required.
*Example*
The output from a 4000 series CMOS chip is required to operate a relay with a 100



coil. 
The supply voltage is 6V for both the chip and load. The chip can supply a maximum current of 5mA. 
Load current = Vs/RL = 6/100 = 0.06A = 60mA, so transistor must have Ic(max) > 60mA.
The maximum current from the chip is 5mA, so transistor must have hFE(min) > 60 (5 × 60mA/5mA).
Choose general purpose low power transistor BC182 with Ic(max) = 100mA and hFE(min) = 100.
RB = 0.2 × RL × hFE = 0.2 × 100 × 100 = 2000



. so choose RB = 1k8 or 2k2.
The relay coil requires a protection diode.




PNP transistor switch
(load is on when chip output is low)
*Choosing a suitable PNP transistor*

The circuit diagram shows how to connect a *PNP transistor*, this will switch on the load when the chip output is *low* (0V). If you need the opposite action, with the load switched on when the chip output is *high* please see the circuit for an NPN transistor above. 

The procedure for choosing a suitable PNP transistor is exactly the same as that for an NPN transistor described above. 
*Using a transistor switch with sensors*




LED lights when the LDR is *dark*



LED lights when the LDR is *bright*
The top circuit diagram shows an LDR (light sensor) connected so that the LED lights when the LDR is in darkness. The variable resistor adjusts the brightness at which the transistor switches on and off. Any general purpose low power transistor can be used in this circuit. 

The 10k



fixed resistor protects the transistor from excessive base current (which will destroy it) when the variable resistor is reduced to zero. To make this circuit switch at a suitable brightness you may need to experiment with different values for the fixed resistor, but it must not be less than 1k



. 
If the transistor is switching a load with a coil, such as a motor or relay, remember to add a protection diode across the load. 
*The switching action can be inverted*, so the LED lights when the LDR is brightly lit, by swapping the LDR and variable resistor. In this case the fixed resistor can be omitted because the LDR resistance cannot be reduced to zero. 
Note that the switching action of this circuit is not particularly good because there will be an intermediate brightness when the transistor will be *partly on* (not saturated). In this state the transistor is in danger of overheating unless it is switching a small current. There is no problem with the small LED current, but the larger current for a lamp, motor or relay is likely to cause overheating. 
Other sensors, such as a thermistor, can be used with this circuit, but they may require a different variable resistor. You can calculate an approximate value for the variable resistor (Rv) by using a multimeter to find the minimum and maximum values of the sensor's resistance (Rmin and Rmax): 
*Variable resistor, Rv = square root of (Rmin × Rmax)* 
For example an LDR: Rmin = 100



, Rmax = 1M



, so Rv = square root of (100 × 1M) = 10k



. 
You can make a much better switching circuit with sensors connected to a suitable IC (chip). The switching action will be much sharper with no partly on state. 
*A transistor inverter (NOT gate)*




Inverters (NOT gates) are available on logic chips but if you only require one inverter it is usually better to use this circuit. The output signal (voltage) is the inverse of the input signal: 

When the input is high (+Vs) the output is low (0V).
When the input is low (0V) the output is high (+Vs).
Any general purpose low power NPN transistor can be used. For general use RB = 10k



and RC = 1k



, then the inverter output can be connected to a device with an input impedance (resistance) of at least 10k



such as a logic chip or a 555 timer (trigger and reset inputs). 

If you are connecting the inverter to a CMOS logic chip input (very high impedance) you can increase RB to 100k



and RC to 10k



, this will reduce the current used by the inverter. 
*Next Page:* Analogue and Digital Systems | Studying Electronics 

Electronics Club Home Page




Site Map
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Construction of Projects
Soldering Guide
Study Electronics
Electronic Components
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Frequently Asked Questions
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© John Hewes 2007, The Electronics Club, www.kpsec.freeuk.com


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## ادور (14 يونيو 2007)

مشكورررررر وانتمني التقدم


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## -أصيل- (14 يونيو 2007)

جزاك الله الف مليون خير اخي الحبيب المهندس: مصطفي هيرو
الذي جبرت بخاطري
اخي الكريم اشكرك من اعماق قلبي على ردك الجميل و الرائع ...
لا ادري كيف ارد لك هذا الجميل ..
اخي الحبيب : الدائرة رائعة جداً ..
لكن هل توجد دائرة أخرى مع شرح الوظفية علمها لاني اريد ان اطبقها على بورد
هذا وبارك الله فيك


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## -أصيل- (14 يونيو 2007)

اشكرك على المرور اخي الكريم :ادور
والى الامام


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## مصطفي هيرو (14 يونيو 2007)

اخي العزيز اصيل ستج دائره جيده في هذا ال link


http://www.uoguelph.ca/~antoon/circ/fmt5.html


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## -أصيل- (15 يونيو 2007)

الاخ الحبيب : مصفطى هيرو 
بارك الله فيك و جزاك الله الف مليون خير 
فعلاً دائرة رائعة فشكر لك من اعماق قلبي ..
و اشكرك بعنف وحرارة على تفضلت به ..
وان شاء الله جهدك مشكور ..
و اتمنى ان تكون في اتم الصحة والعافية 
محبك في الله : أصيل


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## -أصيل- (15 يونيو 2007)

وصحيح يا باش مهندس مصطفى : جمعة مباركة


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## ادور (18 يونيو 2007)

مشكوررر وكل التقدم لك


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## م.محمد الكسواني (18 يونيو 2007)

بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
الاخ اصيل
تحية طيبة
لقد قرأت مشاركتك بخصوص الدائرة التى تحتوي على ترانزستور وكذلك ارشاد الاخ مصطفى لك من خلال موقع يحتوي طلبك وان شاء الله ان تكون قد توفقت فيما تريد واذا مازلت تواجه صعوبة قم بالتفكير بمشروع من مخيلتك وضع مواصفات فقط للفكرة ان وجدت او اقرب تصور وقم بطرحها في المنتدى وسنقوم نحن المهندسين ان شاء الله بتقديم ما وفقنا به الله من علم بتوجيهك ولكن حاول ان تضع مواصفات من عقلك ولا تيأس ابدا ابدا.


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## mohamed abouzahra (22 يونيو 2007)

مشكووووووووررررررررررر


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## محمود ابو باشا (13 أبريل 2011)

جزاكم الله خيرا


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## عمرمحمداحمدسالم (13 أبريل 2011)

*انشاء الله تناسبك الدارة*

*Description*

This circuit was adapted from the "Toggle Switch Debounced Pushbutton" by John Lundgren. It is useful where the load needs to be switched on from one location and switched off from another. Any number of momentary (N/O) switches or push buttons can be connected in parallel. 
The combination (10K, 10uF and diode) on the left side of the schematic insures the circuit powers up with the load turned off and the NPN transistor conducting. These components can be omitted if the initial power-on condition is not an issue. 
When a switch is closed, the 1uF cap voltage is connected to the junction of the 220 ohm and 33K resistors causing the circuit to change state. When the switch is opened, the cap charges or discharges to the new level through the 1M resistor, and the circuit is ready to toggle again in about 1 second. It takes a little time for the cap to move to the new level, either +V or ground. 
The (0.1uF) capacitor at the transistor base was added to supress noise that might cause false triggering if the switches are located far away from the circuit. The circuit was tested using a 12 volt, 25 watt automotive lamp, and IRFZ44. Other MOSFETs can probably be used.
*Circuit diagram*




*Related ads*


دعواتك لنا :28:


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